The era of Tokugawa had ended, thrown apart by a group of young reformers from the clans of Choshu and Satsuma in the name of the emperor. The Shogun lost power after two and a half centuries of rule; and the emperor, who took the name Meiji, was restored to a position of authority. Thus begun what became known as the Meiji Restoration in the first month on the third day of 1868.
One of the swiftest moving reforms in the history of Japan was the Meiji Restoration, a transformation from feudalistic ideals and economy, to the beginnings of the modern Japan we know today. In the years following the restoration, from 1868 to 1912 when Meiji rule ended, Japan made economic leaps toward the advanced models in the West. The government was changed, more efficient transportation systems were developed, fires of education spread throughout the nation, ideologies were reformed, and new technology was introduced. Such things were done for the sake of independence from Western control, a refusal to fall into Western hands as other Asian countries had once they were infiltrated by Western nations. When examined critically, Japan reacted differently from all other Asian countries exposed to Western powers; and in the end gained an independence of their own instead of living as a colonized nation. (Reischauer, 1977, p. 84-85).
From its shaky start the Meiji Empire inherited a militarily weak nation consisting primarily of agriculture and little technology. (The Meiji Restoration and Modernization, n.d). This created a number of difficulties only overcome due to the fact that though the emperor was the head of power, he did not rule directly. Instead, he ruled according to the advisement of the group who had overthrown the Shogun. These young idealistic samurai of Choshu and Satsuma were then able to create a new political system, and a transition from the old to the new. The first change was to move the Imperial court from Kyoto to Edo, which was then, renamed Tokyo, meaning Eastern Capital. (2006). Then, to further the strong yet growing ties of national identity Shinto was adopted as the national religion over Buddhism, and was centered around the emperor. The slogan “Fukoku Kyohei” was adopted as well and used to carry out various reform programs. (Meiji Restoration, 2001). The phrase meant “Enrich the country and strengthen the military,” these things were not only goals of the government, but the desires of the people in order to shake their Western comrades from holding sway over them.
First Moves Toward Change
In order to gain the kind of power and money needed to run a proper government the reformers had to break up the many domains ruled by the old feudal lords and create a more unified system of land distribution. As all the action taken by the reformers was done in the emperor’s name the Daimyo (feudal lords) were required to return their land to the emperor and in exchange receive governor appointments for their respective domains. Two years hence would yield the change from domains to prefectures. When this change occurred the daimyo were recompensed with government bonds. This move helped both the government and the daimyo, yet also doomed the latter should the new government fail, since their financial well-being hinged on the governments success. (Reischaur, 1977, p. 82).
Although most of the changes went about smoothly, there was a small yet fierce opposition, mainly among former samurai who had the most to lose from the change. Several uprisings took place in a goal to overthrow the new government, and keep the rights of the Samurai in tact. The largest and last of these was the Satsuma Rebellion in 1877. The clan whose actions had initially paved the way for the emperor’s restoration had grown disgusted with the direction the new government had taken. With the help of a former Satsuma government leader the feudalistic samurai challenged the Meiji government. Upon word of the rebellion, a conscript army from Tokyo was deployed and the group of conservative samurai were overcome using the very Western techniques and weapons they opposed. The defeat proved domestic security was no longer a problem, and the government could then look to the international front. For the samurai it meant an inevitably changing world.
Forming a Government
The task of forming a new government called for much research as well as experience. The reformers behind the Meiji government wanted to decipher between the best and worst national models in each field they were to reform. In order to undertake such a daunting task they dispatched students abroad to study Western ways and learn the needed skills. Where these students fell short Western experts were hired at a great expense to the government; an expenditure that would cause future monetary problems. (Reischaur, 1977, p. 83-84). However, on account of such ventures Western governmental establishments, more specifically, ministries, were formed. Among these were the Finance ministry, which would become one of the most powerful, Armed Forces ministries for the Army and recently established Navy, and an Education Ministry.
In the area of the armed forces alone many changes took place and became established in the new government. Western weapons were adopted as well as western style uniforms. Formal military titles used by Western nations were implemented, and a conscript system of enlistment was developed and put into action. Peasants and samurai alike had to serve a minimum of three years in the newly developed national army. (The Meiji Restoration and Modernization, n.d). Under proper leadership, the new army developed with haste and strength, a quality attributed to its newness. It far surpassed its European predecessors to become an embodiment of the new era. Contrastingly, its Western counterparts were far too busy restructuring their ranks to grow with any amount of speed.
In addition, a Navy was added to the list of improvements made to national defenses, a wise move considering Japan’s island location. The model chosen for the task was the British navy, a strong and reputable fleet showing promise for a Japanese likeness to be constructed.
Equally important as the formation of different ministries were several other Western influenced governmental changes. Examples of such changes can be seen in the adoption of a Meiji constitution; and although the constitution still gave complete power to the emperor and confirmed his unchallengeable authority, it did create a bicameral parliament called the Diet. This parliament consisted of a house for the nobles and commoners. (Mello, Smith, n.d). The constitution, also called the Charter Oath, was written in April, a short three months after the restoration. Besides creating a bicameral parliament it also promised several things to the people. Although still emphasizing imperial rule, it gave freedom for all people to pursue their preferred occupation, and ensured public discussion of all matters. (Henshall, 1999, p. 71). These promises alone were giant leaps away from traditional feudalistic society and toward the democratic models they aspired to. Additionally a nation-wide tax was implemented to help pay for the growing expenses of the new government. This national tax replaced the former daimyo domain taxes and required the tax payer to pay using money as opposed to the former system of agricultural output. Not only did this strategy put money in the pockets of the government, it also had an advantage for the tax payer. In exchange for their taxes, the payer was confirmed as the landowner. This worked to the advantage of peasants who had formerly been unable to own land. The payments were then made by the money created when the modern banking system was enacted, creating the yen as the Japanese unit. At the time the yen was worth roughly one half of the American dollar. (Reischaur, 1977, p. 83).
Outside the immediate government new ideologies created by the reformers threw out old class divisions. Samurai, once Japan’s most revered, lost their position in 1873 as a class passed down from generation to generation. Instead the new military conscription provided the basis for military service. Three years later the Samurai again took a hit to their distinction as a separate class. In 1876 they were banned from wearing their swords, and their stipends were commuted into a relatively small lump payment of cash or government bonds. The age of fixed classes and occupations was ending; equality was the new order of the changing times.
The Fires of Education
As knowledge of the West grew, and the desire to create a better economic and social atmosphere intensified, the need for better education arose. The Japanese government realized the potential in a well educated society, and thus set forth an ambitious design for their education system. The first actual Imperial decree concerning education came in 1872. It read in part as follows: “There shall, hereafter, be no illiterate family among the people of any community, nor
shall there be an illiterate member in any family…learning is the basis for all human endeavors…” (Mello, Smith, n.d). This decree surely displayed and emphasized the importance of education during the Meiji period, and the government’s determination to make such goals come to life. In this task, they wasted no time. As Conrad Schirokauer notes in his book on the history of Chinese and Japanese civilizations, “one eighth of the Ministry of Education’s first budget in 1873 was designated to sending students abroad for advanced studies.” (1978, p. 436.) These students then were able to come home and teach the techniques learned to their countrymen, thus the ways of the West spread beyond the government. By 1877 Tokyo even had its own university in place specializing in four different fields; physical science, law, literature, and medicine. A compulsory four years of education was also put in place as initiative for students to attend classes. These were great successes considering the newness of the system and the concept of advanced education.
In designing the school system, like every other improvement venture, the government looked to the models of the West and evaluated which one they thought well suited for their country. Ultimately the French system of education won out as a model for the Meiji era schools, a system entailing a centralization of administration. Under this system the Ministry of Education led almost every aspect of education. They selected textbooks, supervised the training of teachers, and had general control over the curriculum and direction of education. (Schirokaur, 1978, p. 436-437.) Schooling became an important part of a child’s rearing and by
1907 the number of years required by the government for school attendance increased by two years, making the count six years of mandatory education.
However, the accomplishments reached are not to overshadow the fact that problems existed within the system, as with every new venture by an ambitious government. Before the years of mandatory education were enforced there was great reluctance by parents to send their children to school. Rural parents were mostly to blame for this as they saw little need for education due to their life style. But as the government stepped up its efforts many children began attending school in hopes of attaining the proper educational skills for modernization.
Beyond the acquired skills for modernization came the government’s need for national identity and unity. The educational system filled this need to a tee. Although Western art and literature were taking hold in Japanese society, and the cultural breakthrough from the West of using cow’s milk as a drink came to the nation, (Maciamo, 2004) the new schools were still able to form a strong basis of unity and identity promoting a patriotic sense within Japan. This, no doubt, aided in the creation of a more independent country and contributed to its success in gaining independence from the West.
Cultural and Economic Changes
Along with changes to the government and the new educational system came changes within Japanese society influenced by the West. As mentioned earlier in the section on education, Western style literature and art became the new style of the Meiji period replacing the traditional haiku , kabuki , and noh , developed during the peaceful times in the Tokugawa era. Western dance and music also worked its way into the local repertoire. Architecture changed within the big cities such as Tokyo, and the port city of Yokohama. Large towering Western style buildings began showing face on the streets along side or taking the place of more traditionally style buildings. Eventually a consulate for the Western governments was also built.
Similar to this immersion of Western culture into the art was the adoption of Western style fashions. This is not to say that the customary kimono and other traditional dress was abandoned, merely that Western garb began to work itself into the wardrobes of select members of the society. In this case mostly the more prominent men and women of the time. Many villagers remained in their customary dress, and village architecture also remained the same. As influence from big cities was hard to reach the small villages these were the places that preserved much of the changing culture. However, etiquette was only partly changed as the West pushed their influences. The Japanese of then and today still remain with traditional etiquette in tact. (Maciamo, 2004).
The aforementioned were the major changes to the culture of society, and though they seem like large changes the breakthroughs made in the field of the economy were far greater. One of the most beneficial and accepted changes came in the area of transportation when the first railroad was introduced in Japan in 1872. The first line ran between Tokyo and Yokohama carrying eager passengers to the new Westernized cities. The following year marked the beginning of the use of trains in the transportation of freights, a feature that would drastically help to modernize Japan. Not only did Yokohama undergo such improvements as the railroad, but it also saw an improvement of its port facilities. These ports created a valuable bridge between the model West and the growing Japan. Even in the face of occasional sailor quarrels, these modernized ports were essential in the developmental import/export process.
Before we can continue onto the industrialization of Japan through exports and other manufactured goods, one must first understand the society the Meiji government had to work with. Along with the weaknesses mentioned in the third paragraph of page one concerning an economy of agriculture and little technology; there were a great many strengths attributed to society as well. For one the workforce was not only large but educated and obedient due to traditional values. There was no shortage in man power as the agriculture department had so many workers many could be spared to change to industrial. Energy sources, a major factor in the industrialization of an economy, ran in reasonable supply from such resources as wood, water, coal, and iron. (Henshall, 1999, p. 93). These were excellent assets to have working in their favor. However, in contrast they lacked sufficient technology, and initiative; both factors that would have to be improved if growth were to continue.
In order to create solid groundwork for industrialization the government had to intervene. The problem was that no business owner wanted to stick their neck out and take a chance, in other words, entrepreneurs were in short supply. Instead of waiting for some venturesome individual to begin the work, the government stepped up and took the initiative for the people. They imported foreign machinery in order to install higher technology into the work area. Both of these actions solved the problems presented and the road to industrialization was set. Once government initiated ventures took off, business owners, potential business owners, and manufacturers were more willing to step in. Thus the ventures were sold and in turn began to be run by the people. One such venture was the mechanical reeling of silk which improved production and the flow of Western capital into the nation as silk was in high demand at the time. Not only did Japan become a leading provider of silk, but soon had cotton production that rivaled the South. The cotton industry soared as domestic need for the material rose, another successful venture for the growing nation. Tea joined in as a substantial export for the Japanese, as it too became a product of high demand. (Schirokaur, 1978, p. 438) Communications reveled in the creation of the telegraph network, and lighthouses began springing up around the island.
In the manufacturing department the government also stimulated public interest by starting cement works and plants to manufacture such goods as glass, and tiles. Textile mills were opened, shipyards began building up the ships for a strong navy and import/export basis. Mines were created for resources, and munitions works were started to build the foundations for a powerful army. All of these government programs were eventually sold in public auctions, save for the munitions works which stayed in government possession.
The selling of such ventures was in part due to need to cut back expenditures, and partially due to the need for societal involvement. Since the latter is rather self-explanatory the former shall be addressed. Due to such heavy governmental and societal change, payments to samurai on their bonds, the Satsuma rebellion, various business ventures, and the initial balance of trade, a financial crisis of sorts was created. (Schirokaur, 1978, p. 438). The selling of such programs yielded much needed capital, and the fruits of the developed programs did the rest.
The Ventures and Problems of a Growing Military
Japan’s military rose quickly with the help of promising models in the West. This point was proven when the Satsuma Rebellion was quashed ensuring the people of domestic security. However, with the quick growth of the military there also arose internal problems. The clans most prominent in government for their roles in the restoration, Satsuma and Choshu clashed on issues of direction. (Jansen, 2000, p. 396). As if this didn’t create enough tension, internal conflicts within the Choshu clan thickened the plot. The main question on the table was in which direction the military should be led. Should it venture beyond its borders, or stick to domestic security? Should the country take an aggressive stance, or should it be docile? These topics split clansmen and created problems that eventually led to the abandonment of the government by some top officials disgusted at the direction in which the government was pushing the military. Those left, however, would begin several military ventures that would define Meiji Japan with the international world.
Unlike the previous military actions, Japan began to involve its military in foreign affairs. An issue of contention in the new government was whether to step into Korea or not. When the internal tension cleared with the departure of select officials the common consensus reached was that action in Korea was needed. And thus it was so. In 1894 Japan began a test of its strength in the Korean peninsula against the Chinese. The extenuating circumstance being that China had been creeping further and further into Korea, a nation which Japan had had a hand in for some time. They engaged in favorable trade and had ambitions of such trade continuing, causing resentment toward China’s growing influence there. In order to counter this Chinese dominance they launched a naval assault on a Chinese vessel delivering aid to the Korean king during a revolt. (Mello, Smith, n.d). Following this initiative to war, the Japanese then proceeded to push China’s armies out of Korea.
In less than a year the war came to a close, and Japan had gained victory due to the high quality of military arms and tactical skill. China acknowledged Korea’s full independence and gave up a great deal of land including the Pescadores Islands, and the Liaotung peninsula. However the victory was pressured by several key nations in the West, and thus Japan enjoyed none of the spoils of the war. Each piece of land was divvied out between several different nations including France, Germany, and Russia. A bittersweet victory for the Japanese, but the war had won them international recognition and signaled the beginning of a world power named Japan.
Even with this recognition the Japanese were unsatisfied with the Western intrusion in their wartime victory. One country in particular began to push their influences into Korea through their gain of Port Arthur and the Liaotung peninsula. Russian influence began to seriously threaten trade relations with the Koreans. With the fairly recent victory of the Chinese-Japanese war, such threats hit a sore spot with the Japanese. Yet instead of braving the storm alone Japan turned to Britain for aid. An alliance between the two countries supplied Japan with the support it needed to take action against the growing threat. When Russia demanded a neutral zone around the thirty ninth parallel and complete control over trade in south Manchuria, Japan gave a quick reply of severed diplomatic relations and moved its navy into the coastal position. (Mello, Smith, n.d). The Russian-Japanese war economically drained Japan, yet still gave them a victory when a treaty was signed in Portsmouth, New Hampshire with the U.S President as a mediator. Thus ended large scale military action by the Meiji government, and at the same time established the country as a world power.
In Conclusion…
In 1868 when Meiji rule began the country was militarily weak, exposed to Westernization, and technologically challenged. By 1912 when the respected emperor died Japan had gained unquestionable independence from any Western nation. Their government had been completely overhauled to a highly centralized bureaucratic system, communications and transportations were more effective, and production more efficient. Militarily the nation had grown strong, and by fighting in Korea against the Chinese and the Russians, Japan established equality for itself in the international spectrum.
By far the Meiji government established and accomplished many of the tasks it set out to. And many of the programs and policies established then are still in effect today. Such a fact more than proves the worth and impact the Meiji government made upon Japan. The nation’s position in the world today is due in part to the ambitious young leaders of the Meiji period. Their programs pulled Japan from the fate of colonization, and plunged them into a new world of international recognition and power.
Haiku: A type of Japanese poetry that became popular during Tokugawa rule. This form of poetry generally focuses on themes such as nature, feelings, and emotions. Haiku is formatted according to a 5,7,5 syllable pattern.
Kabuki: A form of Japanese theater originating during Tokugawa rule. Kabuki is heavily reliant on rhythms and movements.
Noh: Chanted drama, often referred to as “Japanese opera.”
Citations:
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