The most dramatic and forceful advance of the Reformation in the 16th century took place in Germany. According to God’s providence the land was perfectly prepared to burst forth with the fruit of change. The German people were tired of giving to the church only to have their money taken away by Rome. They were offended by the wicked lifestyle of many priests and monks. The semi-autonomous rule enjoyed by the German princes gave rise to a new nationalistic spirit and paved the way for political protection of those who would do the work of reform. As in the first century, the fullness of time had come. The Word of God was to be unsheathed once again and the world was to witness a rebirth of biblical Christianity.
At its heart, the Reformation was an evangelical movement. It began with the good news of Christ working effectively in the hearts of individuals for salvation. It was the result of “piety and prayer” (D’Aubigne 1846, 146). While politics and intellectual progress were key factors, it was not merely a political or intellectual movement. As we look at various aspects of the German Reformation, it is important to remember at its core the reform was the result of men and women being born again by the grace of Almighty God!
The complete story requires many volumes. The scope of this paper will be to present some highlights from two categories of interest in this period: important people in the German Reformation and important events in the German Reformation.
Important People in the German Reformation
It is admittedly overly simplistic to force people into categorical definitions. Nevertheless, it is useful to present the major players in the German Reform by category so we can quickly grasp who was involved. Here we will consider five categories: Humanists, Evangelical Churchmen, Evangelical Princes, Romanist Churchmen, and Romanist Princes.
The Humanists
We must not underestimate the importance of the humanist scholars who were working and writing in the 15th and 16th centuries. The increased interest in learning and particularly in antiquity was used by God to create a climate ready for transforming Christendom. The “acknowledged leader, respected by many as the ‘Prince of Humanists,’ was Erasmus of Rotterdam” (Gonzalez, 1985, 10). His role in the Reformation is debated because he took a “middle of the road” approach. Both the reformers and members of the established church wanted to bring Erasmus into their camps. By the end of his life he had disappointed both parties, although he wrote decidedly against Luther in Freedom of the Will. His main contributions, however, are his Greek New Testament along with the overall culture of scholarship he cultivated through his life’s work. These things became tools in God’s hands for the reform of the church.
The Evangelical Churchmen
Unquestionably, Martin Luther (1483-1546) is one of the most significant figures in the history of the world. Most histories use the posting of his 95 Theses as the starting date for the Reformation. His influence in the history of the church is unrivaled since the time of the apostles. He is also a champion of the German people; whose many writings (especially his translation of the Bible) gave them their modern language.
Luther was born in humble circumstances, but his father was an example of the rising middle class that would factor largely in the transformation of European society. The elder Luther became a miner and later the owner of several factories. He wanted his son to receive a good education and study law. Luther grew up under a regimen of strict discipline at the hands of his parents and teachers. He attended the University of Erfurt where he took the bachelor and master or arts degrees. However, he shocked his family and friends by suddenly joining the Augustinian monastery in Erfurt.
Luther’s motivation for becoming a monk is debated by some writers. However, it is certain that he feared the judgment of God and was seeking a way to ensure peace for his soul (Bainton, 1964, 237). He threw himself into the monastic life. He was a model monk, regularly observing prayers, mass, his duties, and confession. However, he did not find peace in any of these things. He was deeply afraid of God’s judgment. On the recommendation of his superior he became a priest and was later sent to teach theology at the newly formed University of Wittenberg.
As part of his spiritual journey, beginning in his days at the monastery in Erfurt and culminating in his study of Romans at Wittenberg, Luther began to seek refuge in Christ. He had been taught to believe “the righteousness of God revealed” in Romans 1:17 referred to the wrath of God, which would be poured out on sinners. However, as he studied the text, Luther determined that the “righteousness of God” is that which is given to those who have faith. This doctrine of justification by faith alone became the chief platform of Luther’s ministry, writing, and life. Luther says, “I felt that I had been born anew and that the gates of heaven had been opened. The whole scripture gained a new meaning. And from that point on the phrase ‘the justice of God’ no longer filled me with hatred, but rather became unspeakably sweet by virtue of a great love” (Gonzalez, 1985, 19-20).
When the Dominican John Tetzel entered Germany selling indulgences, Luther posted 95 statements in response to this trade that he considered misleading and dangerous. He hung his theses on the doors of the castle church in Wittenberg on All Saint’s Eve, 1517. The response was beyond anything Luther expected. The theses were printed and spread throughout Germany like wildfire. Indeed, a fire had been started, but it was the fire of reform for the church and expansion of the gospel of Jesus Christ.
Luther began writing in defense of his theses and he also produced works of theology, commentaries, and devotional books. His opposition to the established church made powerful enemies, but the Elector of Saxony protected him. In April 1521 he was taken before Emperor Charles the V and the Diet of Worms. When he was commanded to recant of his writings, he gave this famous answer:
“Unless I am convinced by the testimony of Scriptures or by clear reason (for I do not trust either in the pope or in councils alone, since it is well known that they have often erred and contradicted themselves), I am bound by the Scriptures I have quoted and my conscience is captive to the Word of God. I cannot and I will not retract anything, since it is neither safe nor right to go against conscience” (Noll, 1997, 154).
With these words the message of the Reformation had made its way from the cell of an obscure monk to the pinnacle of world power.
Luther was not the only German churchman involved in the work of reform. His colleagues at the University of Wittenberg were some of his most effective supporters. Perhaps the closest person to Luther was the brilliant Philip Melanchthon (1497-1560). Although he was never an ordained priest, his influence on the church in Germany is only exceeded by that of Luther. While he did not have the popular appeal and talent of his older friend, his classical learning and systematic mind was perfectly suited for him to become the chief organizer of the Lutheran theological system.
He wrote the first protestant work of systematic theology, Loci Communes Theologici or Theological Common Places. Melanchthon served as the representative of all German protestantism when he penned the Augsburg Confession. In his attempts to find a resolution to the dangerous conflict that was brewing between the Catholic and Reformed princes of Germany, the confession was more moderate than it would be if Luther had authored the work. This led some to say Melanchthon weakened the Lutheran system of theology (Schaff, 1910, 702). Nevertheless, his contribution as a teacher, writer, church member, and Christian family man are overwhelmingly positive.
While still a monk in Erfurt, Luther came into contact with Johann von Staupitz. Staupitz was the Vicar-General of the Augustinian order. Staupitz encouraged Luther to become a priest and later teach at the University of Wittenberg. Although Staupitz’ support of the Reformation was only marginal, Luther claimed, “If it had not been for Dr. Staupitz, I should have sunk in hell” (Posset, 2003, 4).
Another of Luther’s colleagues at Wittenberg was Andreas Carlstadt (1486-1541). It was Carlstadt who awarded Martin Luther with the Doctor of Divinity degree. Influenced by Luther, Carlstadt was brought over to the Reformed view. The two debated Dr. Eck together at the Leipzig disputation. However, Carlstadt adopted some radical views that were a departure from the scriptural convictions that animated Luther. When Luther returned from exile at the Wartburg, he gently opposed the agenda Carlstadt had implemented during his absence. Later Carlstadt left Wittenberg and installed himself as pastor at Orlamunde. There he continued his radical reformation including a rejection or icons, infant baptism, titles, church music, and the real presence of Christ in communion. Luther opposed Carlstadt openly and the later was eventually forced out of Germany.
One final figure who should be mentioned here is George Spalatin (1484-1545). Spalatin served as chaplain and secretary for Prince Fredrick the Wise of Saxony. A former classmate of Luther at Erfurt, he was a man of evangelical leaning who later became more fully involved in the work of the Reformation. Spalatin was the main link for communications between Luther and the Elector and he carried on a voluminous correspondence with the great reformer. These letters are particularly useful for us in trying to understand the relationship between Luther and his prince (Schaff, 1910, 94).
Evangelical Princes
Just as the Christian faith is not only for the clergy, the work of the Reformation was carried out by more than pastors and biblical scholars. A handful of powerful German princes were used by God to advance the gospel of Christ in the 16th Century.
Chief among these princes was the Elector Fredrick of Saxony (1463-1525). His successful efforts to rule his territory with justice and prudence earned him the nickname Fredrick the Wise. He was a pious son of the church who participated in all the religious ritual of his day and amassed a huge collection of Christian relics. He was the founder of the University of Wittenberg and its main benefactor when Luther came to teach there. He never came out and sided directly with the Reformation, but as a matter of principle he defended Luther and the work that was taking place in Saxony. Furthermore, he was displeased with the lives of the priests and the abuses of the church. Historians see a childlike faith in Fredrick that continued to grow. Just prior to his death Fredrick changed his will. In the new document he declared he was, “redeemed by the precious blood of his beloved Savior” (D’Aubigne, 1846, 386).
Upon Fredrick’s death, his brother Duke John succeeded him as Elector of Saxony (1468-1532). John, whose nickname was “the Constant”, was bolder than his elder brother. He determined to support the cause of the Reformation even if it cost him everything. During his reign the Lutheran church was officially established. He played an important role at the Diet of Speyer and the Diet of Augsburg. At the later of these meetings he was warned that he may lose his electorship because of his protestant stand, Duke John replied “I will do what is right unconcerned about my electoral dignity. I will confess my Lord, whose cross I esteem more highly than all the power on the earth” (Schaff, 1910, 700).
Perhaps the boldest political figure in the history of the German Reformation is Philip, the Landgrave of Hesse (1504-1567). The young Philip first met Martin Luther at the Diet of Worms in 1521. Later he met and corresponded with Melanchthon and become a staunch Protestant. He tried unsuccessfully to serve as a bridge builder between the German and Swiss Reformers and worked to develop the Schmalkaldic League of Protestant states, which were later defeated by Charles V. His zealous religious life was scarred by personal issues such as adultery and bigamy.
Romanist Churchmen
The man whom the Lord used to inadvertently catapult Martin Luther to worldwide fame was on John Tetzel (1465-1519). Tetzel was a Dominican monk hired by the Archbishop Albert to sell indulgences in Germany. His improper preaching of justification prompted Luther to write his 95 Theses. Tetzel’s message was summed up in a line attributed to him, “as soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs” (Gonzalez, 1985, 21).
Dr. Johann Eck (1486-1543) proved to be a more formidable challenge against Luther than Tetzel. He debated Luther and Carlstadt at the disputation of Leipzig (1519). Although he and Luther had once regarded one another as friends, Eck was determined to triumph by humiliating the reformer in debate. He was not truly able to do so, but he did successfully tie Luther’s teaching to that of John Hus (Bainton, 1964, 245). This was damaging and caused many to declare Eck the winner of the disputation.
Pope Leo X (1475-1521) sat on the throne in Rome at the time of the Reformation. He approved the sale of indulgences that led to Tetzel’s work in Germany and was greatly disappointed to see sales drop off as a result of Luther’s preaching. Although he tried to ignore the situation at first, Leo eventually issued a papal bull excommunicating Luther. Thus, it was actually the Roman Church that caused the split between Catholics and Protestants.
Romanist Princes
We cannot forget the medieval popes were princes as well as churchmen. Throughout the life of Luther there were four different popes: Leo X, Adrian VI, Clement VII, and Paul III. Each of these men focused (although some to lesser degrees) on increasing the temporal power of the papacy through political intrigue and sometimes wars.
The most powerful Catholic prince during the German Reformation period was Charles V (1500-1558). Charles already held many titles when he was elected to serve as Holy Roman Emperor in 1519 and began to rule over a huge empire. Charles was a politician more than anything else and tolerated the Lutherans when it worked to his advantage. However, he was a strong Catholic and would have suppressed the Reformation with force from the beginning if it were possible. “This man (Luther) will never make a heretic of me,” he announced (Schaff, 1910, 306). Charles was, however, held in check by the political clout of the German princes and his need to form alliances with them in war against the Turks, the French, and Pope Clement. Charles did eventually declare war against the Schmalkaldic league of Lutheran princes and defeated them at the Battle of Muhleberg in 1547.
Important Events in the German Reformation
As mentioned earlier, it is impossible in a short paper to address all of the significant events in the German Reformation. Here are listed only a few: the posting of the 95 Theses, the Diet of Worms, Luther’s imprisonment in the Wartburg, the Peasants’ War, the Diet of Speyer, and the Diet of Augsburg.
The 95 Theses
Martin Luther was not the first person to protest against the abuses of the medieval Catholic Church nor was he the first to point out the ridiculous nature of the indulgences. However, the political situation in Germany, the rising middle class of literate people, the use of the new printing press, and the spiritual growth of Luther combined to set the world on an unexpected course. The theses posted by Luther on October 31, 1517 were soon distributed all throughout Europe.
In his theses, Luther protested against the behavior of the indulgence sellers. He is careful not to condemn the pope himself and seems to believe the pope could not possibly be aware of the abuses carried out in his name. However, he declares, “The true treasury of the church is the holy gospel of the glory and grace of God” (Thesis 62). “Furthermore, he makes it clear that the pope cannot remit any sin except by declaring the remission of God. Forgiveness presupposes true repentance, and can only be found in the merits of Christ” (Schaff, 1910, 159). Luther’s presentation of the true gospel empties the papacy of its power to coerce and collect through the offer of remission of sins.
The Diet of Worms
Luther was summoned to the Imperial Diet that took place in the city of Worms in 1521. There he was to recant of his writing and teaching. His travel to Worms was risky. Although he was promised a safe conduct by the emperor everyone remembered the burning of John Hus at the Council of Constance despite the safe conduct he had been given. Luther went anyway, trusting that God could protect him if he wished, but also willing to die for the truth of the gospel. “Even if there be as many devils in Worms as there are tiles on the housetops, still I would enter it,” he said (D’Aubigne, 1846, 238).
Luther’s famous words before Emperor Charles are recorded above. Although there was much debate about what to do with Luther, his enemies eventually produced an edict, which was signed by the Emperor himself. This Edict of Worms gave legal force to the papal bull against Luther. It denounces him as a devil and pronounces upon him the ban of the empire. It commands the burning of his books and forbids the sheltering of his person. He and all his followers were to be handed over to the emperor so they might be punished according to the laws of the empire (Schaff, 1910, 319). Thankfully, the political situation in Europe would make it impossible for the edict to be enforced in Saxony where Luther lived.
The Wartburg
Luther left Worms after 10 days and began his journey back to Wittenberg. Along the way he was abducted by a group of armed men. Luther was taken alone to the Castle Wartburg. This arrangement had been made at the request of Prince Fredrick, who wanted to steal his most famous citizen away to a safe place before one of his enemies could get him.
Luther did not waste time during his retreat in the Wartburg. He wrote extensively. His most notable accomplishment was the translation of the New Testament into German. This was the first installment in a work that was to span many years and culminate in the translation of the entire Bible. Of all the great things the Lord did through Luther, this is perhaps the most significant. Philip Schaff expresses the importance of this work well saying: “The Bible ceased to be a foreign book in a foreign tongue, and became naturalized, and hence far more clear and dear to the common people. Hereafter the Reformation depended no longer on the works of the reformers, but on the book of God” (1910, 341).
The political and religious histories of the 16th Century are inseparably intertwined. This is clearly seen in the Peasants’ War (1523-1525). There had been uprisings prior to the Reformation because of the ill treatment many of the common people received from their masters and princes. However, at the time of the Reformation, the peasants “identified their cause with the restoration of pure Christianity” (Schaff, 1910, 442).
Luther himself acknowledged that some of the peasants’ grievances had were legitimate and encouraged the princes to make concessions. However, when it became apparent that many of the peasants were being led into open rebellion and they were claiming Luther’s blessing and the rights of the gospel as their reason, the reformer took up his pen and wrote against them. He advised the princes to “stab, kill and strangle” them (Schaff, 1910, 446). At his advice Philip of Hesse, Duke Henry of Brunswick, the Elector John, and Dukes George and John of Saxony crushed the peasant armies without mercy. The number of those killed was greater than 100,000. This event left a deep scar in Germany and on Luther.
The Diet of Speyer
In 1529, the Diet of the Empire was convened in the city of Speyer. The Emperor Charles V determined to advance his political agenda by reaffirming the Edict of Worms, which had been moderated by the First Diet of Speyer in 1526. At the diet, the emperor’s brother Ferdinand announced Charles would no longer tolerate any deviation from the decision at Worms and all were to comply immediately. The majority in attendance readily accepted the decision.
The Lutheran princes, however, could not obey such a command. Six of them, along with representatives from 14 of the free Germany cities, signed a famous protest in which they expressed their belief that that they need not obey the emperor in matters of religion and conscience. From this famous protest, the evangelical Christians were given the name “Protestant” (D.Aubigne, 1846, 520).
The Augsburg Confession
Although the Reformation’s struggles beyond 1530 would include war and many other hardships, there is no question that the Augsburg Confession was a high point in its progress. The emperor Charles V invited the Imperial Diet to convene at Augsburg in April 1530. His stated purpose was to settle the religious question and prepare for war against the Turks (Schaff, 1910, 696). The polite language, however, concealed the trouble brewing under the surface. The Roman majority intended to destroy the Protestant minority. The Protestants were not ignorant of this so the diet began with universal tension.
One early issue was that the Lutheran preachers who had accompanied their princes were busy delivering evangelical messages all throughout the city. This brought a strong reaction from the Romanist party. When the emperor forbade the preaching, the Margrave George of Brandenburg spoke for all the Protestants telling the emperor he would rather lose his head then deny God (Schaff, 1910, 698).
Although he was moderate and courteous in his treatment of the Lutherans, the Emperor continued to stand by the Edict of Worms. It was the goal of the Protestants to make a statement of faith before the diet, which would glorify the gospel of God and also put to rest the false accusations of their enemies. All throughout the conference, Philip Melanchthon was working to draft a statement that would bring some unity between the Roman group and the Lutherans while at the same time summarizing the true beliefs of the Protestants. This proved an impossible task. The Roman churchmen would not compromise on anything. This sad state of affairs, however, strengthened the final statement, which was signed by the princes and read to the emperor on June 25, 1530. The Roman majority rejected the Confession, but the Protestants were full of joy to hear it read.
The Confession of Augsburg, as it was read to Emperor Charles, consisted of two grand divisions. The first was a statement of doctrinal belief held by the Protestants and the second was a rejection of abuses made by the Roman Church. It is the “first and most famous of evangelical confessions” (Schaff, 1910, 707) and has become the official statement of faith for the Lutheran Church. It summarized the Reformation doctrine and created a solid foundation on which the church could grow in the centuries to follow.
Conclusion
The Reformation of the 16th century was a worldwide event. It cannot be attributed to Martin Luther alone or to the combined work of the German reformers. It was the work of God. A work that he did in France, Switzerland, and many other nations as well. A work that continues around the world today. May it never cease to grow and may He get all the glory!
Works Cited
Bainton, Roland H.. Christianity. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1964.
D’Aubigne, J.H. Merle. History of the Reformation of the 16th Century. Translated by H. White. London: Religious Tract Society, 1846.
Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity. Vol. 2, The Reformation to the Present Day. San Francisco: Harper Collins, 1985.
Noll, Mark A. Turning Points: Decisive Moments in the History of Christianity. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Books, 1997.
Posset, Frank. The Front-Runner of the Catholic Reformation: The Life and Works of Johann von Staupitz. Surrey, Great Britain: Ashgate, 2003.
Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church. Vol. 7, Modern Christianity: The German Reformation. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1910.
