The foundation of the Meiji got established during the Tokugawa rule of Japan. Under the Tokugawa, Japan became united and isolated based on the Chinese as a model. The Tokugawa drained the feudal system economically by requiring the samurais and daimyos to spend half their time living in Edo every other year besides living in their fiefs. Their families had to stay behind as hostages. During this time, the feudal system began to collapse due to an increase in the population not matched by an increase in agricultural production. The lack of primogeniture reduced inheritances by dividing them amongst every male offspring. A growing number of nobility became impoverished. The merchant class grew in power upsetting the previous balance of the classes. The Tokugawa isolated instead of supporting trade. Samurais and daimyos started marrying their daughters to merchants for the financial resources. The population became ready for changes (Murphey, pp.261-5).
The Tokugawa declined in power. In the mean time, China became less of a role model since the West looked more powerful after the Opium War (Murphey, pp.250-260). The Western powers became a threat. Americans got the first trade agreements and used a show of force in 1853. Townsend Harris added Nagasaki and Kanagawa as port cities in the Harris Treaty of 1858. Japanese nationalism grew. Choshu and Satsuma, areas that had been prospering from investments and sugar crops, joined forces. The Emperor of Japan died in 1867 and Mutsohito, Meiji, took his place. Meiji started his reign at 11 years old open to change. Choshu and Satsuma samurai and daimyo supported him and fought in a civil war that ended the Tokugawa reign in 1869 (Murphey, pp.265-8). The Meiji restoration began.
‘The Unequal Treaties’ became the impetus for reform. In 1868, the emperor announced the Charter Oath emphasizing leaving dated customs behind in favor of gaining knowledge from over the earth in order for Japan to surpass everyone. The daimyos and samurais got convinced in 1869 to hand over their land holdings to the emperor that set up land taxes. They got a percentage of tax income in exchange. In 1876, this goy changed to government bonds. Peasants suffered under the new fixed tax burden that financed the new changes (Murphey, pp.290-3). In 1871, an army and navy got established run by Choshu and Satsuma men. Every able-bodied man had to serve three years in the military. In 1876, Korea opened two ports to Japan after a show of force. Saigo Takemori, a political leader, became discontented that the government did not invade Korea more aggressively and resigned his post. He later led Satsuma samurai in the Saigo rebellion in 1877 that got defeated by the peasant army.
The government took several actions in order to westernize. They began subsidizing industry to build economic strength. Industries got built then sold in the private sector until conglomerates formed called zaibatsus that supported the Meiji. Railways, telegraph and a postal service got constructed to improve communication and trade. Banking became more sophisticated as business increased. Yet, many peasants felt burdened by the taxes and staged a number of rebellions. In 1870, the People’s Rights Movement began to push for a parliament. In 1890, they got a halfhearted national assembly. The country became financially solvent (Murphey, pp.294-7). Japan made their legal system similar to French and German law to convince Western nations to drop extra-territorialism. They promoted education in Western subjects and Japan became the most literate and best-educated society. They set up civil examinations for civil service in 1887. Yet, the government moved slowly towards representation, acted to hinder people’s freedom of speech, freedom of assembly and added the “Peace Preservation Law” to expel people from the capital that appeared to be a threat. The most powerful lower house had male landowners only as members. In 1889, they completed a constitution. Authoritarianism grew as the emperor became the supreme commander over the military able to get rid of the assembly at any time and the military became an unchecked separate entity from the civil government.
Japan had imperialistic plans. They experienced success against China in Korea and pushed the Chinese troops out. They invaded Manchuria and negotiated the Treaty of Shiminoseki after defeating the Chinese at sea ruining China’s image. The Japanese came into conflict over Russian expansion in Manchuria. They attacked Russian ships in Port Arthur and took over Seoul. Russia surrendered in 1905. Britain’s and Americans felt less threatened by Russian power and accepted Japan as an equal (Murphey, pp.298-303). In World War I, Japan had been on the allies’ side. Japan fought Germany to gain control in China and made China into a colony. Japanese rule expressed racism and harshness over China, Manchuria, Korea and to a lesser degree Taiwan. The strength of Japan convinced Britain to drop extraterritoriality in 1899 followed by other Western powers. In conclusion, the unchecked military and authoritarianism lead to destructive developments (Murphey, pp.303-307).
Saigo’s rebellion is an example of dissenting opinions about change in Japan. Although change had been easier for Japan than for China, it still created difficulties for the people. Daimyos and samurais felt cheated after giving up their land holdings to the government in many cases. Many of them felt cheated again after getting their stipends lowered and then changed to government bonds. Peasants in rural areas held revolts over the heavy burden of land taxes. Assassination became a common problem in the political arena due to disagreements. Even Ito Hirobumi a major leader for change got assassinated. Change in the country had been costly in resources and in human suffering as demonstrated by the number of revolts, rebellions, suicides and assassinations that occurred. Changing political structures and social structures is difficult in general.
Many aspects of the Meiji restoration resulted in good changes for Japan. Yet, the colonization of other areas is a negative by-product of westernization. The authoritarianism in Japan and the independence of the military set the stage for future conflicts. Yet, it is not fair to conjecture that these things in the structure of the Meiji are completely responsible for the choices the next generation made in politics. Western aggression and colonization is a large factor in promoting military aggressiveness in the Meiji policies. The structure of military independence from civil services is unique to Japan from the West. Yet, it got created, as part of a response to Western aggression and in that sense, is a result of Western aggression too.
Reference
Murphey, Rhoads. East Asia: A New History. 3rd edition. New York. Oxford University Press, 2003.
Reference:
- Tokugawa, the Meiji, Imperialism, Conlialism, Western Powers, the Unequal Treaties, Feudalism
