For over 3000 years, Egypt was home to a fertile and prosperous civilization. But by 69 BC, when Cleopatra VII was born, Egypt’s power was failing. The country was ruled by a dynasty of pharaohs know as the Ptolemies, Greeks who had arrived from Macedonia in 323 BC. Egypt was also in danger of being taken over by its great rival Rome for it abundance of riches.
The first of the Ptolemies had ruled well, but their descendants, including Cleopatra’s father, did not. Cleopatra faced an uncertain future.
From an early age, Cleopatra knew that her family was at war, with the people it ruled, and with itself. The people suffered under the cruelty of Cleopatra’s father, Ptolemy XII, and they resented his alliance with Rome. In 58BC, the citizens of Alexandria rioted, and ousted Ptolemy from Egypt. He fled to Rome, and Cleopatra’s older sister Berenice, became queen. Two years later Ptolemy returned, and assisted by Roman general Pompey regained his power from Berenice. Ptolemy had Berenice executed.
Cleopatra, Ptolemy’s oldest surviving child would become queen when he died. This was exciting but also terrifying for her as Cleopatra feared that enemies would try to kill her.
Cleopatra was extremely intelligent and politically active. She made friends with powerful courtiers and prepared herself for government by learning many languages including Egyptian. She also used religion to support her claim to the throne.
After the death of her father in 51BC, Cleopatra VII came to the throne and ruled alongside her brother Ptolemy XIII, whom she married in accordance with royal custom at the age of 18.
Although her brother was only 12, he wished to reign alone, but because of his age he was placed under the care of a triumvirate made up of his ‘foster father’ Pothinus, his private tutor Theodotus and the general Achillas.
Cleopatra knew many nobles and royal officials supported her brother’s right to rule, and General Pompey, her dead father’s powerful ally, had plans to govern Egypt for Rome.
Cleopatra discovered that Ptolemy and Pothinus were plotting against her which forced her into exile. She took refuge in Syria, where she recruited an army, to help win back her throne from her brother. Three weeks later the young queen and her soldiers laid siege to the town of Pelusium, which Ptolemy XIII defended with a large force. While Ptolemy and Cleopatra were preparing to confront each other, Julius Caesar and General Pompey were also getting ready to do battle.
Rome was in the grip of a civil war and Pompey and Caesar became rivals for supreme power in Rome. Their clash led to fighting between rival Roman armies, ending with the Battle of Pharsalus at which Julius Caesar was victorious.
Pompey retreated to Egypt and informed Ptolemy of his presence and requested asylum from him. This caused concern among Ptolemy’s advisors. If they granted asylum to Pompey, it would break their neutrality with regard to Rome and turn Caesar into an enemy. But if they drove him away, they would be providing an ally for Cleopatra. Ptolemy’s advisors saw only one solution, which was to murder him.
Soon, Caesar landed in Egypt, and on arrival at Alexandria, Ptolemy’s supporters offered him Pompey’s head as a gift. Caesar was angry: even though Pompey was an enemy, the affairs of Rome were to be settled by Romans.
He ordered Cleopatra and Ptolemy to meet with him to discuss a peace treaty. Cleopatra, not trusting her brother, knew it wasn’t safe for her to be seen in Alexandria. She needed Caesar’s protection so had herself smuggled into Caesar’s room in a rolled up carpet.
With her charm and grace, Cleopatra quickly captivated and gained Caesar’s support, and the Queen of Egypt and the emperor of Rome soon became lovers and linked their destinies irrevocably. They soon realized how much their own interests coincided, so the next move would be to get rid of Ptolemy and his supporters restoring power to the young queen.
When Pothinus, Ptolemy’s chief advisor, found out that Cleopatra had won Caesar’s support, he plotted against him. Pothinus was found out and executed. Meanwhile Arsinoe escaped from the city to join forces with General Achillas and the Egyptian army against Caesar.
Ptolemy XIII was able to escape from Alexandria and rejoin his army, but was soon defeated by the Roman legions. Days after the war in Alexandria ended, Ptolemy’s body was found floating in the Nile.
The way to the throne was now clear. Cleopatra felt secure. The people supported her, the priests granted her the rights of a pharaoh and the court dignitaries also eventually accepted the new situation.
Rome was losing patience at his continued absence so after taking control in Egypt; Caesar was forced to return to Rome. Three days prior to his departure from Egypt, Cleopatra gave birth to a son, Caesarion.
After a triumphant reception on his return to Rome, Caesar was granted the title of dictator for Life. Cleopatra joined him, taking Caesarion her son with her and took part in the triumphal public displays with her lover.
Many Romans were shocked by the relationship between Caesar and Cleopatra. They were afraid that Caesar would claim Caesarion as his heir and that Cleopatra’s son would become ruler of Rome. Some saw him as a threat to the Roman Republic, and thought he would claim the title of emperor. Conspirators, led by Brutus and Cassius plotted to murder him and in 44 BC Julius Caesar was stabbed to death by a group of senators in the heart of the Senate.
Heartbroken, Cleopatra and her son were forced to leave Rome. On her return to Alexandria, she shared the throne with Caesarion. But, in Rome, civil war was raging between supporters of Octavian, adopted son and heir to Caesar, and Caesar’s former lieutenant, Antony. In the end the two sides reconciled and agreed to divide the empire between them. Octavian was to reign over the West, while Antony would rule the East.
Antony had control of Egypt, but needed Cleopatra’s support. He feared she might side with his enemies. Antony needed Egypt’s gold and grain to pay his armies and feed his men so Antony summoned Cleopatra to meet him in Tarsus where he was preparing for battle against the Parthians.
Cleopatra was in no hurry to respond to Antony as she knew he was desperate for Egypt’s gold and grain. In return, she planned to ask for his protection and to help destroy her enemies.
Cleopatra knew this meeting with Antony would decide Egypt’s future. She knew he was a tough solider, who loved pretty women and exotic luxuries. So Cleopatra planned a dramatic arrival, in a richly decorated boat, to impress his with her mystery, majesty, and charm.
Cleopatra’s daring plan worked. Her dramatic visit to Tarsus had won Antony’s support in her struggle to remain ruler of Egypt. This was the beginning of their great love affair. Cleopatra and Antony spent the winter of 41BC together in Alexandria which resulted in Cleopatra becoming pregnant.
Early in 40 BC, Antony was forced to return to his own affairs. There was a rebellion in the part of the empire over which he ruled and, while in Greece, his wife Fulvia became ill and died.
Fulvia’s death may have been convenient for Antony’s plans regarding Cleopatra, but it also fitted into Octavian’s plans for Antony. He did not look favorably on Antony’s love affair with the queen of Egypt. To remove him from her influence, he arranged a marriage between Antony and his sister, Octavia.
As Antony was marrying Octavia, Cleopatra was giving birth to twins, a boy and a girl. She had reacted with bitterness and anger to the news of her lover’s marriage to Octavia.
Cleopatra continued to rule Egypt. It was nearly four years and then Antony returned. The two lovers met at Antioch, where they were married, although he was still officially married to Octavia. Then, leaving Cleopatra, Antony sailed towards the Euphrates at the head of a huge army.
The war against the Parthians proved disastrous for Anthony. The Roman army owed its salvation to Cleopatra, who arrived at the head of a large fleet bringing reinforcements, food, equipment and money. She no was no longer just the loving wife, but the faithful ally who proved herself in adversity.
But then relations turned sour between Antony and Octavia which eventually led Egypt to prepare for war, no longer against the Parthians, but against the formidable might of Rome.
In 35 BC Cleopatra and Antony had a third child, a son whom they named Ptolemy Philadelphus. Early in 34 BC, Antony invaded Armenia and returned to Alexandra in triumph. In a magnificent ceremony Cleopatra was crowned ‘Queen of Kings; and all her children were given special royal titles.
With Antony to assist her, Cleopatra hoped to make Egypt a successful empire as it had once been before when the first Ptolemies ruled. Cleopatra planned to reclaim the lands that the Ptolemies had once controlled outside Egypt. Many of these, including Syria, Lebanon, Phoenicia, and parts of Asia Minor were given to her by Antony.
When Octavian heard about this ambitious plan and the divorce of Antony and his Roman wife, the Senate and the people of Rome ordered that he be stripped of his rank, and war on Egypt was declared.
In the spring of 31 BC a decisive sea battle took place at Actium where Octavian’s warships had gathered. Although fewer in number, the battle turned to his advantage. Realizing their forces were losing, Cleopatra fled the scene, quickly followed by Antony.
Defeat was bitter but Cleopatra bravely made plans to continue as Egypt’s ruler. Her spies informed her that Octavian had insufficient gold to pay his armies, so could not attack immediately. Cleopatra knew Octavian would attack sooner or later, because he needed Egypt’s wealth. Almost a year after Actium, the news came: the Romans were on their way.
Cleopatra messaged Octavian, offering to give up her throne if he would let her children rule. Octavian did not reply. It was clear that Octavian wanted to rule Egypt himself, for Rome.
Antony rallied his army to face Octavian but was forced to flee when most of his soldiers refused to fight. Antony was disgraced and humiliated. Cleopatra sealed herself in her mausoleum and sent a message saying she was dead. In despair, Antony stabbed himself. On hearing this, Cleopatra sent her servants to carry Antony to her where he died in her arms.
News spread that Octavian planned to parade her publicly on his triumphal return home. She resolved that she would sooner die than enter Rome as a prisoner. Legend has it that the bite of a sacred asp spared her that final humiliation.
Cleopatra was the last independent ruler of Egypt, and her death marked the end of over 3,000 years of Egyptian civilization and power. Although she did her best to defend her country, Cleopatra could not defy the might of Rome.
The death of Cleopatra made it easy for Octavian and the Roman army to complete their conquest of Egypt. In 30 BC, Octavian declared himself to be the new pharaoh of Egypt. To show that they were now in control, Roman soldiers defaced ancient Egyptian monuments and destroyed official documents, including most of those created while Cleopatra was in power. For the next 500 years, Egypt became part of the Roman Empire, ruled by governors appointed by Rome. Alexandria continued to be a great center of learning and trade, but elsewhere Egypt’s power and prosperity began to decline.
