Marcus Antonius came from a distinguished family that was rumored to be descended from Hercules. His grandfather, a consul and censor, was considered one of the great orators of his time, and his father was “a man of no great repute in public life, nor illustrious, but kindly and honest .” More importantly, though, for Antony, his mother, was a relation to none other than Julius Caesar. Antony’s father died fighting pirates when he was just a boy, and any hope Antony may have had of a male role model, his mother’s new husband, was executed when Cicero named him as one of the Catiline conspirators. From that moment on, Antony held a deep hatred for Cicero, and the feeling was fervently returned. Cicero, one of early Rome’s most prolific writers and statesmen, spoke out vigorously against Antony at every opportunity.
Like Caesar, Marc Antony couldn’t seem to keep his hands off the ladies, and there was a bit of time during his youth when his family began to worry that he wouldn’t amount to anything but trouble. He hung out with a rambunctious group of young men, who liked to engage in “general scandalous behavior ,” but gambling was his most expensive vice, taking his bad habit so far that at one point he was in debt for nearly 250 talents (One talent is roughly 26kg of silver). Antony seems to have tamed his ways, though, when he was sent to Greece to learn rhetoric, and seemed ready and willing to do what was necessary to further his career.
His first order of business was to prove his military prowess, and this he did with distinction. He not only was able to lead a cavalry across a particularly daunting stretch of land, but he also managed tactical success against a much larger army, displaying “many deeds of daring and sagacious leadership .” It is here that we get the first look at Antony’s character, when Antony was able to prevent Ptolemy from instituting an all-out massacre of the Pelusian people. Antony managed to successfully place Ptolemy back on the throne and leave Alexandria with many honors and appreciation. It is rumored that this may have been when he first came into contact with a young Cleopatra, then only fourteen.
In fact, he was so successful in his turn-about that upon returning to Rome he was elected as tribune of the plebs and was able to use his position to be of great help to Caesar. The senate, showing obvious favor to Pompey, refused to allow any of Caesar’s letters to be read, but Antony would have none of this. He insisted on reading the letters, and was able to change “the opinion of many, who judged from Caesar’s letters that he was making only reasonable and just demands .” Eventually, though, members of the senate were able to drive Antony out, and he soon made his way to Caesar, lamenting that “even tribunes of the people had no freedom of speech, but everyone who raised his voice in behalf of justice was persecuted and ran risk of his life ”
Loyalty was in scarce commodity at the time, and Caesar, who knew he had found it in Antony, trusted him so fully that he felt comfortable leaving Antony in charge of keeping peace in Italy while he continued to battle afar. Antony tried to handle matters, but did not prove a capable politician, choosing only to make friends with soldiers, and paying little mind to any others who came to him with complaints. To make matters worse, “he was in ill repute for his relations with other men’s wives ,” but Caesar paid no mind to the complaints and continued to keep Antony at his right hand, which may very well have been a decision that helped him claim the title of dictator.
One of Caesar’s first actions upon winning the day was to confer upon Antony the title of “Master of the Horse,” a title which is “second in rank when the dictator is in the city; but when he is absent, it is first and almost the only one .” Antony soon ran into trouble, though, when Dolabella, tribune of the plebs and husband to a woman whom Antony was rumored to have had an affair, attempted to pass a law that would abolish all debt. Antony disagreed, and soon the two were at war and Rome was strife with social disorder. Cicero sums up public complaints against Antony, claiming he was always drunk, he spent money in excess, and led a life of general disorder, even going so far as to show at the senate with a hangover and vomit into his toga. Even the soldiers, Antony’s specialty, began acting badly, with little care and concern for the Roman people, and when Caesar returned he had no choice but choose Lepidus, instead, as his right hand man.
As perhaps a way to settle down, Antony decided to wed Fulvia, the wife of Clodius, one of his old rabble-rousting friends of youth. Of all the woman for Antony to choose, Fulvia likely made his reputation worse, for she cared nothing for household duties and had a reputation as being a bossy nag, quite unbecoming for a woman of her day. For his part, Antony loved her, and Plutarch surmises that Cleopatra has Fulvia to thank for making him a man who could be easily tamed by a powerful woman.
In 44, two years after demoting Antony, Caesar again allowed him a position of trust and the two shared a consulship. In truth, Caesar was hoping that he would be able to convince Antony to share the position with Dolabella, his old enemy, but Antony outright refused, showing that he was never one to forgive a grudge. If Caesar was annoyed at Antony’s impudence he did not show it, and on more than one occasion the dictator chose Antony above all others, even Octavian, for the seat of honor. This led many to believe that Antony would be Caesar’s principle heir.
Antony, who was responsible for voting Caesar a number of honors, may have done more harm than good. The senate was already beginning to grumble about a change in the republican way, accusing Caesar of being too high on himself and taking too many liberties with the traditional political structure, when Antony, with an obvious ignorance to the nuances of public opinion, put their complaints into form for all to see. The Romans, having once overthrown a tyrant king, had a deep hatred of anything even remotely representing the monarchy, but during the festival of Lupercalia, “Antony made several attempts to crown him with a diadem of laurel as he sat in his golden chair .” Caesar, sensitive to the tide of public opinion, smartly refused the symbol of royalty, but it was too late, the image stuck and from then on Romans began to note the senate’s long-standing complaint that Julius Caesar was getting too big for his britches and looking to turn Rome into his personal kingdom.
At this, the plan to assassinate Caesar gathered steam, and the biggest question was whether or not they should also kill Antony. One side argued that they could not attempt to follow the just cause of killing a tyrant with the unjust action of murdering an innocent man, especially because they had hinted about the plot to Antony previously and he had remained silent. The other side was fearful of Antony, considering him a loose cannon that they could never be sure of. In the end, they decided to allow Antony to live, which has led to speculation that he also played a part. Some even go so far as to wonder if Antony did not know exactly what he was doing on the day when he tried to fit Caesar with the laurel crown.
When Antony learned of the assassination he hid in the dress of a slave until he was sure of his own safety, offering his son as a hostage to convince the senate to talk with him. Together they agreed that as a matter of respect, all of Caesar’s decisions would be followed, but “no action would be taken against the assassins ,” and for a moment all seemed as if the hullabaloo would come to a peaceful end. In fact, the senate viewed Antony as a hero who was able to put an end to the civil wars, as well as quash any thoughts of a riot amongst the people. A few days later, though, at Caesar’s funeral, Antony played into the crowd sentiment and gave a moving eulogy, holding Caesar’s torn and bloody toga for the crowd to see and calling his fellow Romans to avenge the brutal murder of their champion and beloved leader. The public became so irate that they lit torches from the funeral pyre and set fire to the homes of those who played a part in the assassination.
One can only guess at how Antony truly felt at the time, but it is clear that he must have been disappointed when the will was read and all were surprised to learn that it was not Antony, but Caesar’s young grand-nephew Octavian, who was named as principle heir. Antony, who was older and more politically experienced, did not seem to put much stock in the eighteen-year-old. For starters, Octavian was nowhere near Rome when Caesar died, and secondly, Rome was a republic, not a hereditary monarchy, and so Caesar did not have the right to choose who would take his place as leader. As far as Antony figured, he had his position well-secured; the crowd was used to seeing him at Caesar’s right hand and would easily allow him to slide right into position, and if the senate had anything to say about it all they had to do was think about the angry riot Antony was able to incite after Caesar’s funeral. All seemed as if it would go smoothly and Antony was handed what was in the treasury, as well as Caesar’s personal papers, which he was able to use to his advantage by making decisions as if they had been made by Caesar, himself, before his death. There were some decisions made by Caesar, but Antony did not seem keen on seeing them through, such as the bequest of seventy-five drachmas per citizen that Caesar had made clear in his will.
Young Octavian, however, was not to be brushed off so easily, and began to become quite the thorn in Antony’s side. Roman tradition called for a man to avenge the wrong done to his benefactor, and Antony’s apparent forgiveness of the assassins was in direct conflict with what one would consider an honorable course of action. Every time Octavian opened his mouth he made Antony look disloyal and cowardice. Also, Octavian repeatedly called attention to the moneys owed to the Roman populace via Caesar’s will. In fact, Octavian felt so strongly that the will should be honored he sold off his own property and made good, turning the tide of popular support to his side in one fell swoop. To make matters worse, Antony’s old enemy, Cicero was beginning to become more adamant in his opposition, calling Antony a would-be dictator and wondering why Antony wasn’t taken care of along with Caesar. The senate even embraced Octavian, who by this time had rallied his own army, as a way to get rid of Antony.
Antony was no slouch when it came to warfare, though, and was able to successfully make his way west, where he met up with his old friend, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, who had no choice but accept Antony given that his soldiers felt so strongly in his favor. Both sides sat tenuously uncertain; Octavian, who was reluctant to make concessions with the senate, especially those who had a part in murdering his uncle, and unable to beat Antony, who was now allied with Lepidus, realized he would have to make some concessions. The three had a meeting and chose to form an alliance, going so far as to have it legally ratified. The Second Triumvirate was a five-year pact between the three, which divided the empire amongst them, with Octavian to control Italy and the west, Antony to take the east, and Lepidus, almost as an afterthought, would hold Africa.
Unfortunately, Antony did not change much from his partying days, and once again, there were many complaints about his lifestyle, but thankfully, he was soon off with Octavian searching out the leaders of Caesar’s assassination plan, which they were able to successfully hunt down and execute. Then the two men parted ways, Octavian heading back to Italy and Antony off to the east. One of his first orders of business was to summon Cleopatra to defend accusations that she had assisted their republican enemies, though she must have put on a convincing defense because the two spent the following winter together as lovers. Naturally, the relationship did not go over well with the Roman people, who viewed Egyptians, in general, as suspicious, but especially a woman in power. It was well-known that Cleopatra claimed to have given birth to Julius Caesar’s son, and though Caesar had not made the child his heir, there was some grumbling that Cleopatra would someday make a play for Rome.
To make matters worse, Antony’s wife and brother led a rebellion against Octavian, which was quickly squashed, and Antony was compelled to return to Italy to make amends. He was supposed to meet up with Fulvia, who had fled Rome, along the way, but she conveniently fell ill and died, raising the possibility of a successful reconciliation. To prove his loyalty and cement the truce, Antony married Octavian’s beloved sister, “a wonder of a woman ,” and the tenuous pact was held, with Antony to continue control of the east. Rift mended, Antony took his new wife to Athens, where they were promptly deified and worshiped as god and goddess. Though she was a good and faithful woman by all accounts, Antony was not able to bring himself love Octavia. She was loyal to her husband, raising his children, even those by Fulvia, and continually interceding on his behalf with her brother, who is said to have held a soft spot for her. For his part, Antony was sensitive to the diplomatic intricacies for a while and did not see Cleopatra for nearly three years, although he continued to enlarge her holdings, stirring Roman suspicion that he intended to settle in Alexandria and rule jointly with his mistress. It seems that Antony, a wild child at heart, was not attracted to the docile woman, and instead went for women that were independent and strong-willed.
For his part, Antony was successful against the ever looming Parthians, driving them beyond the Euphrates River. He also set Herod up as king of Judea, but there was always a doubt in his mind about his relationship with Octavian. He didn’t like the idea that he was sharing the empire, and some say that Cleopatra was only too happy to point out the flaws in the pact. Things seemed to finally settle down, though, when Antony sent a pregnant Octavia back to her brother to beg for a truce. His sister’s pleas softened Octavian’s heart and he and Antony agreed to tactically support each other’s army. Happily, Antony left his wife and children with Octavian and headed east as fast as he could go.
In 36, Antony suffered his first military failure when a campaign against Parthia failed miserably. Forlorn, he turned to his old lover and mother of two more of his children, Cleopatra, for support. She was all too happy to oblige, allowing Antony access to all that was at her disposal. Cleopatra’s aid was not welcome as far as the Roman people were concerned, who were against relationships with foreigners, going so far as to outlaw marriages to non-Romans. It was understandable that Antony take advantage of the wealth of Egypt, both financially and strategically, but when he made his headquarters in Alexandria in 34, Romans began to think he was going too far. To the Roman, love was a weakness of mind, and try as he might, Antony could not suppress his affection for Cleopatra. Octavian, angry at the insult to his sister, embarked on a successful smear campaign, accusing Antony of disloyalty to his homeland. Even as a young man, Octavian was a master propagandist and soon the tide of public opinion began to turn against Antony, the final straw being when Antony held a festival in Alexandria, naming Cleopatra queen of kings, as well as bestowing the honor of king of kings upon her son with Julius Caesar. Octavian used this to convince his fellow Romans that Antony intended to place leadership of Rome in the hands of foreigners. Octavian even managed to produce a will that was said to be housed with the Vestal Virgins in which Antony supposedly bequeathed large tracts of lands to Cleopatra and her children and expressed a wish to be buried in Alexandria.
Despite Octavian’s constant bashing, Antony still had supporters in Rome, but they found themselves in ever-increasing peril. Both consuls and as many as 200 hundred senators fled to Antony when it became clear that Octavian had no intentions of sharing power. The final straw was when Antony officially divorced Octavia after years of absence. For her part, Octavia remained faithful to Antony, even going so far as to raise his children with Fulvia as her own.
Still, Octavian did not declare war on Antony, but Cleopatra instead, and the fact that Antony chose her side only helped to downgrade him further in the court of public opinion. Antony’s Roman supporters were willing to fight on his side, but requested Cleopatra not be present so it would not seem as if they were on the side of the Egyptians. Cleopatra insisted on staying, and Antony began to lose his support faster than Octavian could take them to his side. When the two armies finally met at Actium, Cleopatra suddenly decided she no longer needed to stand by her man and took off, followed by her fleet of sixty ships. Watching his navy retreat, Antony had no choice but to do the same, and followed his lover back to Alexandria. If the pair had any hopes that Octavian would simply forget about them and leave them be, they were dashed in the summer of 30, when he showed up to claim his spoil. Antony then committed suicide and Cleopatra quickly followed suit. Octavia, his ex-wife, lived until 11 AD and Octavian went on to hold power until his death, becoming one of the most celebrated Princeps of all time.
Explanations and Terms
Death of Caesar: Rome had long been a republic, but that all ended when Caesar came into power. The senate found itself with less and less power, as Caesar’s opinion became the only one that mattered. Their solution was to assassinate Caesar on the Ides of March, and since no one man wanted to have full responsibility, they took turns stabbing him until he was dead. Their act made no real difference, and Rome continued to be an empire once Augustus (Octavian changed his name to Augustus) took charge.
Pompey: At this time in Rome, individual men could amass an army, give themselves title of general, and pretty much do as they wished. In his effort to prove his worth, Caesar did just this, and after running rampant around Europe, and added a considerable amount of land to the already huge Roman Empire. Pompey, especially, did not appreciate Caesar’s exploits, and persuaded the senate to strip him of his title. Caesar, whose men were fiercly loyal, wasn’t about to step down, and perpetrated an act of civil war against Rome by crossing the Rubicon. It was Pompey who was sent in an unsuccessful attempt to stop Caesar.
Talent: A talent was 26 kg of silver.
Tribune of the plebs: In Rome, the plebs were “the people.” Those serving in the tribune of the plebs were responsible for upholding the rights of the people. Ten tribunes, who had the right to veto any proposed legislation they viewed as harmful to the people, were elected each year.
Resources:
Biography Channel. Marcus Antonius. 2010. 24 April 2010 .
Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica Online. 2010. 24 April 2010 .
Mary T. Boatwright, Daniel J Gargola, Richard J.A. Talbert. The Romans: From Village to Empire. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.
Plutarch. The Parallel Lives: The Life of Antony. Loeb Classical Library, 1920.
UNRV History. Roman Empire: Marc Antony. 20 April 2010 .
