In his 1968 book entitled The Empress Wu, C.P. Fitzgerald gives a detailed account about the life of China’s most famous and controversial woman: Wu Chao. Born during the beginning of the Tang Dynasty, and entering the politics and intrigues of Taizong’s court as a concubine of the fifth grade, Wu Chao did what no other woman has ever done: she ruled China in both fact and name. Fitzgerald’s treatment of this historical figure is gentler than other versions and attempts to portray Empress Wu in a favorable light. This approach is in stark contrast to the critical writings of Confucian scholars who portray Wu as a murderous and scandalous monster. Unfavorable treatment by Confucians should come as no surprise since any departure from tradition and rites was considered a grievous offense and a woman ruling on the dragon throne was certainly a departure from tradition. In a patriarchal society such as the Chinese, a woman in power was considered as unnatural as a “hen crow like a rooster at daybreak.”
Fitzgerald does not attempt to refute the traditional claims that Wu was a murderer and tyrant, but rather attempts to show a more balanced view of the Empress, including both the good and bad. His account of the Empress begins just prior to her introduction to the Tang court when she is summoned by Taizong for her beauty. Prospects for Wu, who was thirteen by Western reckoning when first entering the Court, were not considered good since Taizong already had numerous concubines and fourteen sons at the time. A concubine of the fifth grade was certainly not a high position. This move to the palace caused Wu Chao’s mother considerable grief, but Wu replied: “To be admitted to the presence of the Son of Heaven! How can you tell me that means unhappiness? Why are you crying like a little girl?” Upon entering the palace, little is know about her activities during the first few years. Wu herself recounts an incident when browbeating a minister that reveals that Taizong appreciated the spirit and intelligence of Wu as well as her beauty.
Taizong had a very wild horse whom no one could master. I was then a Palace Girl, and standing by his side, said, ‘I can control him, but I shall need three things: first, an iron whip; second, an iron mace; and third, a dagger. If the iron whip does not bring him to obedience I will use the iron mace to beat his head, and if that does no do it I will use the dagger and cut his throat.’ Taizong understood my meaning.
The ambition and determination of Wu Chao is clearly revealed in this statement. If one did not submit voluntarily, Wu would force him to do so, even at the cost of that person’s life. Wu understood that life at Court revolved around more than simple physical beauty. This understanding allowed Wu Chao to capture the throne later in life.
Wu Chao’s ascension to the throne took place in a complicated manner. Near the end of Taizong’s life and reign, issues of succession came to the forefront. Conflicts between the Emperor’s elder children forced succession to skip over them to Taizong’s youngest son by the Empress Chang-Sun, Li Chih, who later took the imperial title Kaozong. The appointment of Li Chih to the title and position of Crown Prince opened the way for Wu Chao to assume power.
When Taizong died, Wu Chao was sent to a convent to live out the rest of her days as tradition dictated. Having served the late Emperor as his concubine, the rightful place for a concubine after his death was in a convent. This tradition was in accordance with the convention of widow chastity and with the role of women in Chinese society. This practice and perspective is corroborated by several selections in the Ebrey sourcebook dealing with women in pre-modern China.
Being sent to the convent would normally have been the end of the Palace life for any regular concubine, but not Wu Chao. In fact, it seems that Wu Chao made advances towards Kaozong prior to the death of Taizong, when it became apparent that the late emperor would soon die and Kaozong would most certainly assume the throne. Given the potential gains of this action, Wu Chao most probably took advantage of the situation since she knew through her service in the Palace of Kaozong’s character, and, as revealed earlier, certainly knew when and how to act during the opportune moments. In this respect, both the traditional accounts and Fitzgerald agree that Wu Chao was clearly very clever and manipulative. In this way, she was able to re-enter the Palace once Kaozong assumed the throne and become his concubine.
Having served the new Emperor’s father as concubine, Wu Chao’s relationship with Kaozong was nothing short of incestuous. This small detail did not deter Wu Chao in executing her plan. Having now entered Kaozong’s Court as a concubine of the second rank, Wu was now poised in a higher position of power and influence. Unlike his father, Kaozong was a weak personality who enjoyed the pleasures of palace life and cared little for state affairs. Kaozong would come to depend on Wu Chao for help in administering the Empire. This gave Wu Chao the chance to seize even more power and ultimately enabled her to have Kaozong’s Empress removed and she installed in the position. It was only a matter of time until all of the affairs of state were decided by Wu and Kaozong was ruling in name only.
During this time in history, the Chinese Empire was near its height. Taizong had established and secured the borders of the Empire and this prosperity was passed down to Kaozong and Wu Chao. Not long after Wu Chao became Empress, Kaozong suffered the first of many strokes, forcing the Empress to take the affairs of state into her own hands. While it was highly unorthodox for a woman to run the affairs of state, the ministers of Tang knew that Wu Chao was a far more able administrator than their Emperor. When Kaozong finally died, Wu Chao installed the Crown Prince to the throne. However, since the Prince’s chief consort had ambitions of her own, this arrangement was short-lived. Wu Chao would remove her son Chungzong (reign title) and install her younger son Juizong in his place. Wu continued to serve as regent for the far more capable and intelligent Juizong and this raised the eyebrows of some Tang ministers. Juizong, however, knew his place in his mother’s plans and kept a low profile. The affairs of state would continue to be managed in this fashion for a while longer. Wu Chao eventually grew tired of ruling without the title and finally resolved to usurp the throne for herself.
The usurpation of the Tang throne by a woman was indeed a monumental affair. Wu Chao, being no fool, moved slowly and cautiously to her desired position. Her first steps toward complete rule included elevating the rank of her own family posthumously, installing a shrine for the Wu family inside the Imperial Ancestral temple. This move was highly significant in that it elevated the status of the Wu family to near equals of the Tang Imperial Li family. This move would ensure that the ancestral cult of the Wu clan would continue to receive favor and offerings throughout and beyond the reign of Wu Chao, but it is almost certain that Wu Chao undertook this move to bolster legitimacy to her claims of the throne rather than out of the interests of filial piety alone.
When the Empress Wu finally usurped the Imperial title and throne, she surrounded herself with able-bodied ministers, many of whom were selected through the imperial examination system. Wu Chao was not fond of flatters and required men of substance to serve the Empire. A new dynasty, the Wu dynasty, was declared by the Empress and her family clan was finally raised to the rank of Imperial Ancestor. The usurpation was complete. For the first and last time in China’s history, the Empire was ruled by a woman. The palace intrigues at this point were far from over. The scandals that were to come nearly overshadowed Wu Chao’s own actions that brought her back to the Palace. Despite these issues, Wu was an able and powerful administrator, ruling China in a time of relative peace and prosperity. It would not be until late in her reign that the Empire would again begin to experience conflicts with the northern Mongol tribes. Even then, the Empress ably controlled the situation and kept the Empire relatively intact.
By the end of her reign, at the age of eighty, Wu Chao is forced to abdicate her throne to the weak and unable Chungzong. Chungzong’s consort Empress Wei and daughter Princess An Lo attempt to rule the Empire like the Empress Wu, but in no way match her intellect or ability. Further intrigues rock the court and it is not until the reign of Li Lungchi, or Xuanzong, that the Tang Empire again returns to stability.
Fitzgerald’s account of Wu Chao is well written, including more than just the events of Palace life. Military expeditions and the social conventions of the time are related in detail. Though the book relates the events of a complex period in Chinese history, it is easy to read and carefully links events in history with the historical figures in the book. In attempting to provide a more balance view, Fitzgerald succeeds in portraying the Empress Wu in a more favorable light. Even with all of the evidence of stability during her reign, however, the verdict on Wu Chao is still unclear. Perhaps it is because she is a woman that history has not looked kindly upon her, though it could be said that Empress Wu in many ways resembles Queen Elizabeth I of England. The issue of Wu Chao’s legacy may never be resolved for Fairbanks himself states in his text “Her record is still being debated.”
Bibliography
Ebrey, Patricia. Chinese Civilization: A sourcebook. New York: Free Press, 1993.
Fairbanks, John King. China: A New History. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of
Harvard University Press, 1992.
Fitzgerald, C.P. The Empress Wu. Vancouver: Publications Centre University of British
Columbia, 1968.
