The industrialization of the 19th century brought change to the world of women. One significant impact during this time was the formation of socioeconomic classes. The distinction was made between the middle class, the working class and much poorer classes. Regardless of social class, women’s focus on spousal relationships, childrearing, personal fulfillment, and relationships with other women was affected by 19th century change. This essay will compare and contrast the lives of 19th century working class and African American women.
Industrialization left women in control of the domestic domain, thus affecting her role as a woman (Woloch, Women 72). The power and responsibility that came along with this new status would be dictated by the middle-class lifestyle. Unfortunately this new “women’s sphere” was not easily attained by working class women. “Most women, moreover, were only remote beneficiaries of or untouched by the middle-class bargain. In rural areas, on farms North and South, and on the frontier, traditional ways of life persisted (Woloch, Women 72).” Widely, women and children continued to be part of the “family labor force” under the authority of the male head of household. As wonderful as this new status appeared a “women’s influence” experienced no increase if she was not of money or attached to a man who was. “In many cases, the perquisites of women’s sphere-influence, autonomy, and authority-were little more than shared aspirations (Woloch, Women 73).”
Cities opened up opportunities for women when household trades shifted to paid factory work. “Cities overflowed with women in need of income-married, unmarried, widowed, and deserted (Woloch, Women 91).” It is apparent by this statement that the working-class women varied in their relationships with men. Primarily though, these jobs would fall into the hands of unmarried young women. The focus would be on making a living prior to choosing a mate. The Lowell factories were significant in this shift (Woloch, Women 92) (Dublin 140). Woloch explains that a married woman was more likely to work from home as an unpaid laborer or part of a family enterprise. Moreover she would not be counted as a wage earner. Although the numbers of married, widowed, and older women employees kept rising, the majority of women workers continued to be single, young, and poor (Early 285).
Where the 19th century may have postponed marriage for working-class women, it did the opposite for African American Women. Emancipation brought about “huge marriage ceremonies”. Male and female African Americans, as freed slaves, traveled far and wide to restore relationships with each other. “Former slaves viewed legal marriage and a stable household as the major privileges of freedom (Woloch, Women 147).” Woloch further explains that a “basic component” to family was “female domesticity.” These domestic roles may have been strongly subjective to the “white” family life style. This, however, would quickly become and abandoned ideal (149). Although African American women, as well as working class women, were both seeking additional income, there was contrast in the acceptance of women working. “Within black communities, acceptance and support for wives who worked outside the home” existed (Woloch, Women 151).”
For immigrant women in need of employment, “work patterns” were influenced by “local opportunities, family traditions, and ethnic attitudes toward women’s work (Woloch, Women 156).” Woloch asserts that regardless to what a woman did to earn money, it did not “necessarily disrupt ethnic patterns, challenge male leadership, or alter the domestic balance of power (156).” Whether a woman worked or not, home remained her responsibility. She continued to tend to the children and other domestic duties. Children often would work out of home as part of the “family labor force”. A mother’s trade and defined role may be passed to daughters. A daughter as a young woman may also enter the work force outside of the home.
African American families focused on instilling “hope” in their children. Forced to abandon the ideal for family structure, mothers would invest themselves as avid supporters in their children’s schooling (Woloch, Women 152). “By preserving this hope for their children’s future, more than a quarter of black mothers sacrificed the domestic ideal and came to represent its antithesis (152).” This contrasts a working class woman’s influence slightly as a result of differing experiences. However working mothers too, instilled hope for change in their daughters.
For women in the workforce personal fulfillment could come in form of paid labor. Additionally Dublin’s description of the Lowell girls provides an image of camaraderie, acceptance, and competence that may not have existed prior. The strike itself is used as an example of this fulfillment; “In an era in which women had to overcome opposition simply to work in the mills, it is remarkable that they would further overstep the accepted middle-class bounds of female propriety by participating in public protest (146).” Those in desperate need of paid labor would seek this fulfillment in any means possible. Berkin and Beth describe Xin Jin’s Contract as being one to eliminate the debt to her “master/mistress for food and passage from China to San Francisco (293).” Her contract deems her to voluntarily working as a prostitute to pay off this debt. Besides pay personal fulfillment comes in the form of opportunity. As discussed in Shop Girls and Piece Workers a young girl offered such opportunity learns things that she may not learn at home (Campbell 293-295).
Personal fulfillment for African American women came in the form of freedom. The previously denied privilege of family was only a portion of what these women would rejoice in gaining. However the necessities attached to survival postponed this desire to establish such freedoms. These women were required to work in order to supplement a husband’s income as well as provide a future of actualization of freedom for children. Personal fulfillment would come in the form of work alone. Eaton discusses “black women workers in late-nineteenth-century America (298). She explains that those living in cities would find few opportunities for factory, store, or office jobs. As opposed to their counterparts, female “black wage earners were more likely to be older, married, and major contributors to family income (299).” Eaton describes “colored women” being denied domestic jobs due to a preference for “white help. With that the pressure to provide brings fulfillment in possibilities to do so.
Probably the most rewarding and powerful change for working class women took place in their relationships with other women. Working-class women’s life in the tenements and on the street drew them into a community of women (Woloch, Women 95).” Banded together working-class women resisted the middle-class imposition of the “women’s sphere. Heavily involved in the lives of neighbors and acquaintances, they were usually gossiping, borrowing, lending, providing services, or seeking them (Woloch, Women 95).” As the Lowell girls exhibited women banded together could be a powerful tool in challenging traditional hierarchies of power.
It appears that African American women were still primarily grouped by race rather than gender. Even during the abolition, female abolitionists may deny attendance of African American Women. These denied did however form their own anti-slavery societies (Woloch, Women 126). While white members of abolitionary groups continued to gather for women’s rights, African American women were bound to securing freedom and supporting a future for their families.
Works Cited
Berkin, Carol and Norton, Mary Beth. “Women of America: A History“. Early American Women: A Cocumentary History, 1600-1900. Ed. Nancy Woloch. McGraw Hill, New York. 2002
Campbell, Helen. “Darkeness and Daylight: Lights and Shadows of New York Life.” Early American Women: A Cocumentary History, 1600-1900. Ed. Nancy Woloch. McGraw Hill, New York. 2002
Dublin, Thomas. “Women, Work, and Protest in the Early Lowell Mills: The Oppressing Hand of Avarice Would Enslave Us.” Women and Power in American History. Volume One: To 1880. (second edition). Ed. Kathryn Kish Sklar and Thomas Dublin. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. 2002
Eaton, Isabel “Special Report on Negro Domestic Service in the Seventh Wad, Philadelphia.” Early American Women: A Documentary History, 1600-1900. Ed. Nancy Woloch. McGraw Hill, New York. 2002
Woloch, Nancy (editor). 2002 Women and the American Experience: A Concise History (second edition). McGraw Hill, New York
