Women’s domestic and social roles evolved sporadically between 1920 and 1950. The prosperity and lack thereof, exemplifying each time period, significantly affected the shifts that occurred in these roles. Prominent events of influence were post World War I (1920s), The Depression and the New Deal, World War II, and Post World War II (1950’s). Women were affected as a whole but the extent and way in which various groups were affected differed. Married white women, single white women, and African American women’s plights and experiences began distinguishing themselves. This paper will consider the influences of each period on each group of women specifically.
The 1920s: The 1920s brought about various types of “new” women. Married White women often earned an education and attempted to juggle careers and family. The single white women were swinging single. The flapper girls challenged old ways of thinking and behaving. Aspirations included education and careers as well as families. Pre-marital affairs became more prominent. African American women endured another demographical shift which brought about additional struggles in their plight for self liberty and employment opportunities. They attempted to move out of domestic work but managed to move very little. The gain was in that they set some limits on types and duration of service. The 1920’s also opened doors in the entertainment field with a booming African American club industry in Harlem.
Married White Women: The 1920’s brought about a new modern housewife. According to Woloch (2002) she “adopted the role of companion and consumer (257).” Professional women, as well, aspired to experience marriage while pursuing careers. The 1920’s women also strived for economic independence. With the awakening of an era filled with women in the workforce, this aspiration became possible. Since 1910, the proportion of professional women who married had steadily increased (Woloch, 267).” Socialization tools such as women’s magazines promoted that a fulfilling life requires marriage, children, and a career. Although some professional women opposed the “fusing” the two worlds. Attempts to reshape the home to accommodate the working wife and mother occurred with Henrietta Rodman’s communal apartment complex proposal and the Smith College’s Institute for Coordination of Women’s Interests. Both ideas were said to fail; the apartment complex never launched. Middle Class married women were affected by what might be called a sexual revolution. Marriage was redefined “as a sexual institution (Woloch, 275)” by the 1920’s.
Single White Women: This 1920s girl challenged the pure and submissive assumptions about women. The “flapper” girls were said to have “had an infectious influence.” She appeared “provocative”. These were self indulged and independent women who lead the focus for her generation (256). “She signified a demand for equality, because she claimed privileges and liberties once reserved for men (256).” She was not the only symbol for the new woman though. Many single white women were basking in the opportunity of education and professions. Woloch explains that these women were at a crossroads though. There were two paths of focus during these times. One was a personal path and the other a political one. The former was prominent among the young as well as women in their twenties and thirties “who had participated in or witnessed the last stages of the suffrage campaign (257).” The latter was moved by organized groups of women, “spurred by the achievement of suffrage and full of ambition (257).”
Another divide took place between “the generations” with regards to the 1920’s influences on sexual evolution. Prewar attitudes were primarily radical whereas postwar were less so. Woloch expresses that the younger women had their own revolutions, described by her as “the revolution of the youth (275).” Premarital sexual conduct was increasingly more apparent. This new movement is easily linked to the economic dependence of this new woman. She was increasingly self reliant and no longer needed to marry for financial security. Young women could aspire to form their own careers and make their own money and this lead to male interactions that were more casual or primarily for the sake of companionship.
African American Women: African American Women were greatly affected by their movement into other parts of the countries; a search for personal liberties and employment opportunities. One affect of this movement included the usual struggles for immigrants. They experienced job discrimination and housing issues. Other factors of change were demographical. Some areas attracted families and others a higher ratio of women to men. The ratio imbalance increased the number of self sufficient working women living independently. Additionally this imbalance “limited marriage options”. (Woloch, pp 269-270).
African American Women were rightfully oppositional to working in the domestic field. Woloch states that a few African American female wage earners, in urban areas, were successful in this plight. Those that were successful found “industrial work or other service jobs (269).” Commonly African American Women would be “reserve” labor and when given work they were less than desirable positions. New employment opportunities, for women, remained closed for African American Women. Against their aspirations most employment remained in the domestic field. The difference is that these women refused to reside in the home they worked and limited their services to “day work. The 1920’s employment movement did open up new doors into the entertainment field. Harlem Clubs housed dancers, show girls, and chorus members.
The Great Depression & the New Deal: There is no better way to express the affects of The Great Depression on woman than to use the words of Woloch (2002). She states “For women, the depression brought a sudden end to the aspirations of the 1920’s. Sometimes it reinforced traditional roles. More often it demanded new emergency roles, appropriate to the dire situation (301).” This time took a great strain on gender, familial, and employment roles. Married White Women redefined their family roles, their roles as women to their husband and in the labor force. Their families became withdrawn socially and women and their husbands became a source of social companionship for each other. Single White women were pushed out of their professional roles to make room for married men in the work force. African American Women who were accustomed to working out of necessity suffered a great loss in opportunities as employment discrimination increased.
Married White Women: Married White women were faced with strong social pressures to return to the home and leave employment for the male “breadwinners” of the family. A woman doing work for “pin money” was shamed for cheating another family out of an income. Federal law passed from 1932 to 1937 that prohibited more than one employed person in each household. These concepts were further supported by educational institutions that would not hire female teachers. These efforts did little to affect the number of married women in the work force and in fact the numbers rose. Most married women, however, continued roles as homemakers.
The significance of these roles changed. “Home management assumed new importance as family resources swindled (Woloch, 303).” The survival of this woman’s family relied on her ability to be thrifty and budget. Additionally this resourceful woman might establish a home based business to bring in additional money. One thing is for certain, this life-style was a far cry from the dreams of the 1920’s modern house wife. Marriage and birth rates dropped during this time and families withdrew socially.
S ingle White Women: While the number of married white women in the workforce increased, the number of labored single white women declined. Much of this affected professional employment. These positions were lost to married men. By the end of the 1930’s, the proportion of women in professional work had dropped, as men sought jobs in such fields as social work and education (306).” Only one-fifth of the women’s workforce was employed by 1938.
African American Women: A negative trickle down of this financial stress landed on top of the African American Woman. Although previously most African American Women maintained employment within in their families, the discrimination of opportunities for them was high. Employment for these women had customarily become a necessity and now they were faced with a great strain on and already strained opportunity. In the North or South, married or single, the black woman worker was more likely than a white woman to be unemployed and less likely to be included in a federal work-relief program (311).
World War II: Men were becoming increasingly scarce during WWII forcing women into the work force. Many unusual employment opportunities opened for all women. Though this could appear to be a win for feminist it in no way signified this kind of shift. In fact “women were hired to do “men’s jobs” during the war on a scale unparalleled before or since, but this was in no way the result of a feminist campaign (188).” With the war at hand military employment was among those opportunities. Married White Women were prominent within the work force, but their families often suffered. Divorce rates were high and children were not getting the focus they once received by parents. Single White Women were re-allowed in the work force and worked under strenuous conditions resulting from the lift of night work and overtime restrictions. African American Women remained victims of discriminatory hiring practices, but the number of domestic service jobs held by them dropped.
Married White Women: The number of married white women in the workforce doubled during World War II. “For the first time, most women workers were married, as were three out of four new women workers (322).” One third of working women in 1945 had children under the age of fourteen at home. The previous stigmas attached to mothers working were extinct during this time. This shift did not come as a result of shifting opinions regarding women, rather out of a state of urgency. World War II ultimately stressed families. Divorce rates were high and there was concern over family abandonment of women, and child delinquency.
Single White Women: The doors of employment re-opened wide for the single white woman, during World War II. “By 1942, the War Department was inviting women defense plants, urging women to enter government offices, and pressuring employers to utilize “the vast resources of womanpower” (Woloch, 321).” Work restrictions regarding night work and overtime, were lifted during this time. It was becoming abundantly clear that women were capable of labor beyond what once was assumed. This was a target for socialization tactics aimed at getting these women into the work force and alleviate the labor low. The low affected the Air force’s pilot staff and women were recruited to do noncombative jobs.
African American Women: World War II opened up a variety of jobs for women and for African American Women many non-domestic opportunities occurred. By the war’s end, the proportion of black women workers in domestic jobs had dropped to 48 percent, while 18 percent worked in industry-about twice as many as before the war (Woloch, 322).” This did not however, eliminate employment discrimination. In fact though a rise in opportunities occurred, African American Women were limited to the lower level ones. They were the last line of emergency workers, hired for nondomestic jobs only when both white workers and black men were unavailable (322).” A small “proportion” of African American Women were able to get jobs as army nurses.
1950’s: The 1950’s, postwar era, brought about an increase in marriage and a baby boom that exceeded the duration of any other. Married white women were moving back into the home and enjoying a new suburban life style. Single white women became a commodity in the workforce as they aspired to marry and join the American suburban dream. African American women continued to experience inequality in the workforce and continued to contribute to household income. They increasingly became the head of households and migrated in droves to urban communities. The result was the initiation of the Civil Rights movement which many young African American women participated in and became iconic for.
Married White Women: The Married White Woman moved back into the home in 1950’s. However the opportunity for affordability came in the form of the suburban life. The new suburban housewife ideally was supported by her husband while she managed the household and cared for the children. The job description did not end there though. Socialization techniques of this time encouraged the development of a super suburban housewife. She sewed here own clothes, hosted parties, entertained guests, attended social functions and charities, drove the kids to school, grocery shopped, made “ceramics”, and took on many other hobbies and skills (Woloch, 342). Although the idea was to put women back into the home, “by 1950, married women made up more than half the female work force, and each year their proportion rose (349).
This modern day women generally married young. By 1951, one women in three was married by 19, and in 1958, more women married between 15 and 19 than in any comparable age span (Woloch, 343).” Not only was there a rise in marriage but also in birth rates. Woloch explains that this baby boom lasted much longer than any minor postwar baby boom. Federal policy supported this suburban life and these families benefited from low-interest loans. The push into the suburban life was a step up for many young women but may have felt more like a step down for college educated women.
Single White Women: The Single White Woman of the 1950’s felt the urgency to marry and the social pressure to achieve the suburban dream. College women were said to have a goal of marriage by the near end of their education. Their aspirations were to be wives and mothers. Colleges redesigned studies to accommodate this new ideal and began offering “feminine courses”. A submissive whimsical female role was widely accepted once again.
Employment opportunities increased, in the education field, to accommodate the baby boom. However with the increase in marriage rate, the supply of young working women declined. Additionally the wage discrepancy between male and female employees continued to gap significantly. “Postwar women, in short, provided an expanding pool of inexpensive labor (Woloch, 351).” This would perpetuate the desire to marry as it kept men in the breadwinning role.
African American Women: The African American population experienced their own unique movement during the 1950’s. Many factors contributed to the African American Women’s role and identity. Migration continued moving many individuals into cities and towns. Large-scale urban migration spurred rising aspirations and often promoted social mobility (Woloch, 359).” Alternatively this sparked the association of problems and “urban ghetto life. The African American women were influenced by all these instances.
Employment opportunities were relinquished postwar and were not replaced with other opportunities as readily as they were for their counterparts. Farming technology replaced rural farm employment previously preformed by African Americans. Mothers in the African American community continued to attempt a second income for their families. “In 1950, three out of ten black married women worked, compared with 19 percent of white wives (Woloch, 359).” The opportunities for female employment lead to attention based on the African American females’ superiority to their mates. Their education rate was higher, employment opportunities more frequent, and their connections to white community more prominent (359).
The affects of rapid urbanization and female headed households in the African American community brought about political attention. This attention led to the Civil Rights movement. African American females easily have become prominent figures in initiating some of this political attention. One for instance is Rosa Parks, who refused to give up her seat, on a bus, to a white passenger. Ella Baker is another example of a credible influence. Throughout her time she was associated with the NAACP, SCLC, and the SNCC. Few Activists can claim a depth and breadth of political experience comparable to Ella Baker’s half-century of struggle (Payne, 215).” Woloch explains that “Black women” were very active “in such organizations as the NAACP, and from the outset the new civil rights movement welcomed their support (361).” Young women made up a great population of these activists.
In conclusion, significant events marked change in the ever evolving roles of women. However variances in affects occurred between married white women, single white women, and African American Women. Married white women were heavily influenced by the social icons of modern housewives, in the 1920’s. They also were capable of education and some juggled careers and home life. Ideally this modern day women would have it all. The depression broke this dream and attempted to push women out of the workforce so that opportunities would open back up to male head of households. The financial depression brought about a social one as well. With World War II employment was promoted once again to these wives and mothers. The state of urgency strained the family life as women maintained what was once considered “men’s work”. Post WW II in order to re-secure jobs for men socialization techniques targeted married women and attempted to place them back in the home. However, due to the shortage of men for so long Single white women were hard to come by and so Married women dominated female held jobs. In addition they attempted to fulfill the ideal suburban wife job description.
Single white women prospered in the 1920’s but fell apart with the Depression. During The Great Depression professional positions, once held by educated single white women, were secured for men. Opportunities for these women were lost. During World War II employment as well as political opportunities opened up for single white women. They were allowed work within the military as well. But the shortage of men and the strong propaganda that came with the postwar 1950’s made single white women vulnerable to socialization techniques putting them back in the home. This appealed to young women but for those already educated and professional women it was a step back in their aspirations.
African American Women took on there own journey and though changes occurred as a result of these same significant events many stagnated themes existed. Among them was employment discrimination. They were the last called to employment when it opened up and the first to be let go when opportunities closed. Additionally they were not given the support and means to retreat to housewife status regardless of the portrayal of it being ideal. In fact African American women, despite the struggle, remained financial contributors to their households. They eventually rose to heads of households as opportunities became more available to them then their mates.
Works Cited
Milkman, Ruth “Redefining “Women’s Work”: The Sexual Division of Labor in the Auto Industry During World War II.”Women and Power in American History. Volume One: To 1880. (second edition). Ed. Kathryn Kish Sklar and Thomas Dublin. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. 2002
Payne, Charles “Ella Baker and Models of Social Change.” Women and Power in American History. Volume One: To 1880. (second edition). Ed. Kathryn Kish Sklar and Thomas Dublin. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. 2002
Woloch, Nancy. Women and the American Experience: A Concise History (second edition). McGraw Hill, New York (2002)
