B.F. Skinner (1904 – 1990) is considered by many to be the greatest behavioral psychologist of all time. He received his PhD in Psychology from Harvard in 1931 and following him was the development of the Neo-Skinnerian Model.
Skinner did not personally concern himself with classroom discipline, but since the 1960s, his ideas have been developed and adapted for classroom use. Today the model is used as a method for encouraging and strengthening students’ learning. It is best used in the primary grades, because beyond them, students tend to have their behavior shaped and sustained by their peers. The model below is a composite of Skinner’s ideas and their extensions made by those who followed in his footsteps, rather than having been directly proposed by Skinner.
Shaping Desired Behavior
1. Our behavior is shaped by reinforcement (rewards) that we receive immediately after performing an act.
2. Reinforcement makes us more likely to repeat that act and try even harder.
3. Behaviors that are not reinforced will becomes weaker and eventually disappear – ex. Johnny raises his hand in class and is never called on = he will eventually stop raising his hand.
4. Punishment should not be used in behavior shaping, if possible, because its effects are unpredictable.
5. In the early stages of learning, constant reinforcement helps learning new desired behaviors. It is given every time a student behaves as desired.
6. Once learned behavior has reached the desired level, it is best maintained by intermittent reinforcement, which means that it is given occasionally so that behavior does not disappear.
7. Shaping behavior or “behavior modification,” as Skinner’s followers called it, must be done through successive approximation, the process of building behavior skills over time. It is applied in two ways:
(a) The teacher observes the student perform a desired act – teacher rewards student – student repeats that act.
(b) The teacher observed the student perform an undesired act, the teacher ignores or punishes the student then praises a student who is behaving correctly. The misbehaving student becomes less likely to repeat the act.
8. Reinforcers can be:
(a) Social: verbal comments, facial expressions, gestures
(b) Tangible: prizes, printed awards, pencils, stickers
(c) Graphic: marks and stars
(d) Activity: free time, collaborating with a friend
Here are some Terms to Remember in relation to the model:
Operant behavior: behavior the student produces. It is not as a response, but is voluntarily.
ex. entering the room quietly, taking a seat, listening during a lesson
Reinforcing stimuli: what the student receives immediately after performing an operant behavior
Reinforcement: the process of supplying rewards
Schedules of reinforcement: consists of constant and intermittent reinforcement to establish and maintain good behavior.
Successive approximation: the progression toward desired behavior by means of small steps.
ex. the class enters the room and sits down, but there is chatter. They are commended for sitting and get a point for doing something good. Later, they will have to get seated and quiet to earn the point.
Positive reinforcement: the process of supplying a reward that the student desires, to spur greater effort.
Negative reinforcement: the process of taking away something that the student doesn’t like or want.
ex. “If everyone passes the math exam, you will not have any math homework until next week.”
Here are some things Skinner and his followers thought about punishment:
Rewards vs. Punishment:
Likely Skinner found that animals worked harder and learned more quickly if given rewards for doing something right than if given punishment for doing something wrong. This was discovered in his experiments with rats and pigeons.
When applied to school students, they also responded better to rewards. Behavior modification is almost entirely based on rewards, because it gives teachers power to work with students in positive ways. It makes a classroom appear supportive and friendly rather than harsh and cold.
Why punishment can be dangerous:
Punishment is effective for stopping undesired behavior quickly. However, the downfall is that if students see punishment as unfair, excessive or malicious, they may want to retaliate or will feel bad feelings that are difficult to overcome.
Thus, teachers are advised to use punishment as little as possible. Punish only if a student misbehaves after being told what was expected of them, what will happen if they comply and what will happen if they do not. They thus come to understand that if they misbehave, they chose the punishment. (set of rules with or without class’ help, contracts signed by students and/pr parents)
Feedback in this media:
Positive reactions: Teachers who begin using behavior modification in a systematic way tend to stick with it, appreciating its powerful effects. It becomes natural to the teacher, without thinking of it. Those who use it, say it makes teaching easier and more enjoyable, and students view the teacher as kind and caring.
Negative reactions: There has been considerable controversy over whether this method is designing or manipulative. It has been said that behavior modification amounts to teacher control over students’ thoughts and actions. It also supposedly disrupts free will, which most people believe to be the essential quality that sets mankind apart from other organisms. Skinner rejected the concept of free will, which he considered to be a road block to understanding human behavior. Some teachers admit it is slow and cumbersome.
* In Anthony Burgess’ novel, A Clockwork Orange, Skinner is criticized for his theories, being called immoral. On the contrary, it is claimed that moral choice is essential to humanity. At one point, Alex, the main character, believes early release from prison is possible if he participates in a B.F. Skinner-inspired rehabilitation program, which conditions criminals to become physically ill at the mere thought of violence. Before he does, however, the chaplain warns that good is only determined by good intentions, rather than conditioning, which is called dehumanizing and basically strays from free will.
My Personal Opinion of the model: The negative reactions above are very interesting, however, I feel they are a bit extreme when referring to reinforcers in a classroom setting. I like the idea of using reinforcement to motivate more effort and to make students feel good about themselves. Getting recognition for doing something well is what allows us to take pride in our work and motivates us to try even harder next time. It is natural instinct to desire praise for our efforts; it is why we smile, applaud and give a warm handshake. Controversy stems from treating humans like animals because of the idea of conditioning, however, we work in many of the same ways, emotionally, instinctively and have the same basic needs. I do not believe he is lowering humans, rather, he is highlighting how our natural psychology works. I do not see this as manipulative, because that term is one I associate with negativity. Teachers use reinforcement to build students into more productive, disciplined and hard-working citizens, which are the essential goals of education.
