Freud
One of Sigmund Freud’s most significant contributions is his psychosexual theory. The major components of this theory are centered on behavior, domains of consciousness, and the structures of personality. Freud believed that motivation played a major role in his theory as it related to behavior. He believed that behavior was something carried out with purpose and that it had meaning. Regarding the aspect of domains of consciousness, Freud believed that our minds are like icebergs. The three parts of this iceberg are the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious. Our conscious thoughts make up the very tip of the iceberg that is floating out of the water. An example would be our thoughts are fleeting and these thoughts would only make up a small portion of our mind. The preconscious section of the iceberg would include thoughts that we could easily recall if we were asked about them. Basically, these thoughts are easily transferred from the preconscious to the conscious section of our minds if attention is drawn to these thoughts in any way. The final portion of the iceberg would be the unconscious. As it relates to the picture of the iceberg, our unconscious is completely hidden from view. Freud believed that thoughts within this section played a major role in our behavior despite the fact that we cannot clarify these associations consciously (B. Newman & P. Newman, 2007).
The three structures of personality are centered on the id, ego, and superego. A person’s impulses and instincts can be contributed to the id section within our structures of personality. The id operates primarily based on the pleasure principal which basically states that people try to steer clear of pain while pursuing pleasure. The ego has two interrelated meanings. The first meaning deals with the way people look at themselves from various aspects such as physical and mental traits. The second meaning centers on a persons mental capacities as they relate to the environment. The superego centers on the aspects of punishing and rewarding behavior and the superego is formed by a process termed identification (B. Newman & P. Newman, 2007).
Despite the fact that Sigmund Freud’s psychosexual theory is normally viewed from a historical context there are still many lessons that can be learned from this theory and applied in the classroom. On the simplest level it encourages teachers to consider the significance of their student’s unconscious thoughts and how these thoughts can play a major role in the classroom environment (“Program Goal II, n.d.). A teacher must use their knowledge of this theory when encountering situations that relate to student behavior, performance, and attitude. Even a basic knowledge of this theory will allow a teacher to recognize that a student’s performance or behavior may not be attributed to something concrete and clear but rather could be attributed to a thought or idea that is just now being formed or created.
One of Freud’s main goals in psychoanalysis was to make unconscious thoughts and desires conscious. This process did not stop here. Once the unconscious thoughts were made conscious Freud intended for them to be redirected and used appropriately (Shusterman, 2007). A basic knowledge of this theory may not be entirely sufficient regarding an educational environment. If a teacher was struggling with a certain student or a certain problem this theory could be the answer to their problem. Simply making the unconscious thoughts conscious is not enough. A teacher must determine what steps need to be taken to help a student redirect their once unconscious thoughts in an appropriate and positive way.
One part of the psychosexual theory states that children mimic or copy observable traits of people they respect and like. This process starts in childhood and continues through adulthood and it is known as identification (B. Newman & P. Newman, 2007). While some students will have nothing but disdain for their teachers, many students will come to admire and love their teachers. Some students will obviously fear their teachers and the psychosexual theory states that a person may even incorporate visible characteristics of those they fear into their own lives (B. Newman & P. Newman, 2007). Since most teachers are liked, respected, or feared by their students one can easily assume based on Freud’s theory that a teachers students will incorporate apparent characteristics or principles set forth by the teacher into their own lives. Based on this statement a teacher must adhere to a high moral code in the classroom if they wish for their students to grow up and be honorable and productive citizens.
Skinner
B. F. Skinner’s key contribution to the field of psychology was his operant conditioning theory. His theory drew from the work of E. L. Thorndike and Ivan Pavlov and more specifically from their theories of classical conditioning and trial-and-error learning respectively. Skinner’s theory followed very closely to Thorndike’s theory on trial-and-error learning. At the center of Skinner’s theory was voluntary behavior and more importantly how these voluntary behaviors could be modified. Skinner believed that the result of these voluntary behaviors would produce a consequence that would in turn cause a person to possibly want to modify those behaviors. Skinner’s theory can further be broken down into four main components. These components are reinforcement, shaping, schedules of reinforcement, and extinction and punishment (B. Newman & P. Newman, 2007).
Reinforcement occurs when an event is more likely to occur in the future based on the response to the said event. There are two types of reinforcement. Candy and smiles would be considered a type of positive reinforcement. Electric shock would be considered an example of negative reinforcement. It is important to note that negative reinforcement does not reduce the likelihood of an event occurring but rather it increases the likelihood of an event occurring by neutralizing a negative incident (B. Newman & P. Newman, 2007).
The component of shaping deals with breaking down a behavior into steps and reinforcing each step you want carried out until all of the steps have been carried out accordingly. A person may have to reinforce each step individually until new steps can be learned. Once new steps have been learned previous steps may no longer be reinforced. The schedules of reinforcement deal primarily with the regularity and frequency of reinforcements. A few examples of this component would be continuous reinforcement and intermittent reinforcement. Finally, extinction occurs when a response does not result in the expected reinforcer. Objectionable behavior followed by a harmful response is the main idea behind punishment (B. Newman & P. Newman, 2007).
Skinner’s theory of operant conditioning can be applied in the classroom in many different ways. His theory has enjoyed wide success in many classrooms across America and as a result it has become a very popular management theory among many teachers. One situation you might see this theory applied to is when a teacher feels that their students cannot control their own behavior. Further, a teacher may feel that because their students cannot control their own behavior the said behavior may result in negative actions in the classroom because of the erratic nature of the students. When a teacher is faced with this type of situation they may feel that the only way to control a hostile environment is with Skinner’s operant conditioning (Edwards, 2000).
Another way a teacher can apply this theory to their classroom is by making sure that the appropriate response is reinforced by the correct environmental consequence (Edwards, 2000). To simply recognize a response is not enough. If the appropriate consequence is not put into play by the teacher it may result in inappropriate responses going forward. A teacher must have a suitable reinforcer ready to meet the responses and more importantly the needs of their students (Edwards, 2000). If this reinforcer is not present it could result in the hostile environment discussed above or it may result in a student not reaching their full potential in the classroom. The behavior modification employed by a teacher through the use of Skinner’s theory may result in a student learning the academic content they hear in the classroom much faster when compared to a situation where Skinner’s theory was not used. This theory also gives teachers the opportunity to address potential conflicts in their classroom in a positive or supportive manner instead of a negative approach. It is priceless when a teacher can address a situation in a loving and supportive manner compared to a penalizing or destructive manner (Charles, 72).
Erikson
Erik Erikson’s psychosocial theory attempts to explain changes that occur in social relationships and self-understanding. Erikson seeks to do this by describing the relationship between psychological, biological, and societal development and its connection with a person’s relationship to their own society (B. Newman & P. Newman, 2007). Erikson’s theory has provided a foundation for describing the role that adolescence plays in a person’s life. Throughout adolescence a person must confront the predicament they are faced with regarding the issue of intimacy versus isolation. A second crisis during this time period that must be resolved is identity versus identity diffusion (Meacham, 1982). The next few paragraphs will take a look at Erikson’s eight psychosocial stages.
Before getting into the actual stages it is important to note that if the conflict an adolescent faces during a certain stage is not resolved this same conflict may occur in a future stage. Past conflicts may also arise during certain life experiences. This experience might be a divorce or a change in jobs. Stage one takes place from the ages of 1-2 years old and it deals primarily with trust versus mistrust. If the needs of an infant are met at this stage they will most likely develop a sense of trust in others and vice versa when needs are not meet. Autonomy versus shame and doubt is the key conflict that occurs during stage two. This stage primarily deals with individuals between the ages of 2 to 4and during this stage individuals are focusing on their mental and motor abilities and how to accomplish certain tasks within their reach regarding these abilities without the help of others. Stage three deals with initiative versus guilt and fantasies play a big role in this stage (Waymire, n.d.)
Stage four takes place at the ages of 6-11and industry versus inferiority is the main conflict. Rules take center stage during this part of an adolescent’s life. Identity versus identity diffusion is the conflict that needs to be resolved during stage five. Individuals in this stage are normally around 12-18 years old and sexual issues are the primary concern during this stage. As a person becomes a young adult they must deal with the issue of intimacy versus isolation and this is stage six. Stage seven occurs during middle age and generativity versus self-absorption must be resolved at this time. Finally, stage eight deals with integrity versus despair and this occurs during the time period in the life cycle defined as old age (Waymire, n.d.)
Teachers may use Erikson’s theory of psychosocial stages in a variety of ways. Stages three through five will be the main stages that teachers will need to focus on. While most elementary and high school teacher’s deal primarily with individuals between the ages of 5 and 18 some teachers may also need to study stage six if they will be teaching students entering the phase of young adulthood. Preschool teachers may need to brush up on stages one and two if they have students between the ages of 1 and 4 in their classroom. For the sake of this article the next few paragraphs will deal primarily with stages three through five.
It has already been mentioned that fantasies play a key role in stage three. Language activities also play a main part during this stage. All teachers understand the significance of language development and comprehension at a young age and for teachers who teach this age group it will be important that they understand the critical role that language plays during this time period in an individual’s life. Teachers will need to develop their lesson plans with this in mind. How teachers respond to their students questions is also of vital importance during this time period (Waymire, n.d.)
During stage four rules become very important. Because of this importance, teachers must be clear and fair with the rules they make. During this stage rules need to be something that students come to respect and if teachers are not clear and fair regarding their rules students may have a negative image of rules. This could have a negative effect on a student’s life as they proceed through the stages of psychosocial development. Because success takes on a major role during a student’s life at this time it will be important that teachers give the student plenty of opportunities to succeed in a challenging environment. During stage five teachers must manage their students in a positive and constructive way and this task will be difficult because of the many difficulties that individuals face during this stage. There could be sexual issues as well as role confusion and teachers must be able to help their students learn while also realizing the added pressures that come with this stage (Waymire, n.d.). Any teacher can take what is in Erikson’s theory and use it in the classroom to produce positive outcomes in a student’s life.
Piaget
Jean Piaget’s key contribution to the field of psychology and education was his theory of cognitive development. Before diving into his theory one should understand that cognition is the way we organize our thought processes based on prior experiences. For example, cognitive activities include problem solving skills and the ability to examine intricate tasks in a critical manner. Piaget developed his theory based on the same principles seen in biological processes. Just as our digestive and respiration systems function in order for us to adapt to changes in our environment and stay alive, Piaget looked at cognition in the same way with one key difference. His theory did not revolve around how biological functions help us to adapt and survive but rather how certain cognitive activities (and their interaction with biological processes) help us to adapt and survive (B. Newman & P. Newman, 2007).
Piaget’s theory contains four main concepts. The first is schemata and it involves the way a person processes and organizes previous experiences using common traits that have been perceived throughout each experience. Exposure is the second concept and it entails the way we balance new information entering our thought processes because of new events that are happening in our lives. Assimilation is the concept that deals with how we organize and use these new experiences in light of the cognitive processes already taking place (schemata) based on previous experiences. Accommodation is the fourth and final step and it explains how a person may have to change former thought processes to accommodate new stimuli (Waymire, n.d.).
There are four stages in cognitive development and as it has already been explained they are grounded in biological principles. The first stage is the sensorimotor stage. It lasts from birth until the age of 2 and it is a time of remarkable development. The second stage is called the preoperational stage and it lasts from the age of 2 until 7 years old. Development continues to take place a significant pace but not as quickly as it occurred in the sensorimotor stage. The third stage takes place between the ages of 7 and 12 and there are a variety of changes that take place among elementary students during this time period. This stage is entitled the concrete operations stage and during this stage the four limitations we see in the preoperational stage (egocentric thinking, conservation, irreversibility, and rigidity) gradually start to lose their grip on the mental processes of the individuals going through this stage. Finally, formal operations is the last stage of this theory and begins around the age of 11and concludes around the ages of 18 to 22. Hypothetical reasoning and abstract thinking are key components that become present during this stage (Waymire, n.d.).
How can this theory be applied to teachers at all levels? As one teaches students between the ages of 2 and 7 (preoperational stage) they must keep in mind the four limitations that are present during this period. Students are going to be very egocentric during this phase of their lives. A lesson that forces students to consider the life experiences of someone else or something else may never take hold in the students thought processes leading to an ineffective use of time by the teacher. From a conservation standpoint, students may not be able grasp the logic behind mass and volume in light of the knowledge that certain objects can change shape and form. In other words, students may have a hard time understanding how the principles behind mass and volume never change despite seeing objects and shapes that might change on a regular basis (Waymire, n.d.).
Irreversibility is also a limitation that teachers must deal with during this time period. Teachers must realize that students may not be able to develop new thought processes until they have been taught or exposed to new ways of thinking that can be efficiently organized within their former cognitive processes (assimilation). Finally, students are going to be very rigid regarding their thought processes during the preoperational stage (Waymire, n.d.). Teachers must consider all four of these principles as they prepare and present lessons.
During the third stage (concrete operations) teachers must realize that despite a thawing of the four limitations discussed in previous paragraphs, students are not going to be able to think abstractly and will continue to have rigid cognitive processes (Waymire, n.d.). A modern day example of this concept involves the Arizona Board of Education and their revision of social studies standards in K-12 classrooms. The Arizona Board of Education changed the social studies standards in 2005 to include more abstract standards (Hinde and Perry, 2007). In response to this decision, one second grade teacher in Arizona is quoted as saying “Teaching is an extremely stressful profession these days: Please don’t make it impossible by expecting us to teach abstract concepts to children who are developmentally in the concrete stages of development as defined by Jean Piaget (Second Grade Teacher, 2005, p. 1). Piaget’s theory of cognitive development can be used by almost any teacher at any level and it is vital that one incorporates the principles of this philosophy into their daily classroom instruction.
References
Charles, C.M. (1999). Building classroom discipline, 72.
Edwards, C. H. (2000). Classroom discipline and management, 19, 48.
Hinde, E. R., & Perry, N. (September, 2007). Elementary teachers’ application of Jean
Piaget’s theories of cognitive development during social studies curriculum debates in Arizona [Electronic version]. Elementary School Journal, 108(1). 63-79.
Meacham, J. A., Santilli, N. R. (December, 1982). Interstage relationships in Erikson’s theory:
Identity and intimacy [Electronic version]. Child Development, 53(6). 1461-1467.
Newman, B. M., & Newman, P. R. (2007). Theories of human development. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Program goal II: Student learning. Retrieved from http://www.csbsju.edu/education/knowledgebase/knowledgebaseii.htm
Shusterman, N. (2007). We’re assigning the wrong Freud. Chronicle of Higher Education, 53(19). Retrieved from Education Research Complete database.
Waymire, C. (1998). Erik Erikson: 1902-1994 [PowerPoint slides].
Retrieved from https://bb.fhu.edu/webct/urw/lc2044122001.tp0/cobaltMainFrame.dowebct
Waymire, C. (2009). Jean Piaget: 1896-1980 [PowerPoint slides].
Retrieved from https://bb.fhu.edu/webct/urw/lc2044122001.tp0/cobaltMainFrame.dowebct
