For several decades now the case studies of various community psychologists have demonstrated that parental involvement in school systems greatly improves children’s performance. Research has shown that when parents are significantly involved with their children’s schools, the children progress not only academically, but also emotionally and behaviorally (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). This paper addresses the empirical research done on community consultation efforts aimed to increase parental and community involvement in schools, and evaluates the relative success of these consultation efforts and their methods. The focus of this paper concentrates on several case studies, including the “Partners For Progress” bridges for structure created by Trudy Good, Angela Wiley, R. Elizabeth Thomas, Eric Stewart, Jon McCoy, Bret Kloos, Gladys Hunt, Thom Moore, and Julian Rappaport of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. While research has established the positive effects of parental involvement on children’s schoolwork and development, less is certain regarding the development of dynamic participation between school and community, and which methods and models schools should utilize in order to get the most out of family and school connections. This paper critically evaluates the methods and findings of various case studies in order to answer the following questions: What are the contexts within which community consultant efforts aimed at increasing parental involvement operate? How do these contextual factors influence the tactics and outcomes of these programs? What barriers do educators and community members encounter when attempting to increase participation, and how can these barriers be triumphed over?
Parent and community involvement programs often claim broad outcomes which are difficult to conclusively deesignate as direct results of the program itself. Because so many complex variables interact in order to generate the outcomes of educational programs, definitive statements regarding their success are often insubstantial and debateable. However, extensive research has established an associative correlation between school system efforts to develop affiliations with parents, families, and community members and outcomes for students, parents, teachers, and schools/school district. Partnerships between schools and parents, families, and communities are associated with student outcomes such as improved standardized test scores and critical aspects of learning, and parent outcomes including increased family interaction and positive self-concept. Meanwhile, teacher outcomes associated with these partnerships benefit by means of the use of varied strategies and an increased sense of self-efficacy; likewise, schools and school districts experienced postive ramifications including increases in student attendance rates, reductions in dropout and pregnancy rates, and improved discipline practices (Rutherford1997). These results account for why the community consultant approach to increasing parental involvement in schools is expected to work.
In the University of Illinois study of Lincoln School, recorded in the article Bridging the Gap Between Schools and Community: Organizing for Family Involvement in a Low-Income Neighborhood, the interests and strengths of the parents and community were first identified and assessed, and then compared to the determined advantages and deficiencies of the school itself. The assessment of the history, demographics, family perceptions, and school organizational structures provided general findings regarding the context of the consultation efforts, but did not effectively capture the zeitgeist of the time period and neighborhood. Without proper contextual identification, the consultants operate in a vaccuum that cannot possibly recognize and solve the problems of the community of which they are acting as agents. In the studies that became the basis of Communities of Difference: A Critical Look at Desegregated Spaces Created For and By Youth, Fine, Weis, and Powell acknowledged each individual school within its larger political, social, and cultural zeitgeist. In this case, the Freeway school and community were not judged as inherently racist or found faulty for its lack of diversity acceptance, but instead characterized by the community history of economic and political separation and strife as an explanation for its deficient progress. In Weis’s depiction of the cause of White racism at Freeman, the portrayal of African-Americans in the media was taken into account; however, at the same time Weis failed to discuss the construction of masculinity in general in American society, and how this similary creates racial tension. In order to achieve overarching goals of increased community and individual involvement with schools, all aspects of the surrounding sociopolitical environment must be carefully considered and monitored.
One facet of a community zeitgeist which many studies fail to account for, and hence fail as agents to the students, is the atmosphere of ever-increasing cultural diversity within America. As the nation’s demographics change and predictions that by 2020 children of color will constitute 46% of the public school system are made (Goodwin 2002), it is essential for any language barriers to be addressed. The case studies researched for this paper neglect to examine the unique problems connected with non-English speaking parents and students. Even different dialects among English-speakers should be taken into acoount. Unfamiliar with the language and school system, these parents may perceive their children’s school as hostile territory, and the deficiency suitable translators or bilingual staff members contributes to feelings of inefficacy and a lack of empowerment for foreign parents when attempting to advocate for their children. Similarly, new families bring with them new, different suppositions and challenges to school districts as parents may have had little or no experience with formal education. Neither the UIUC study, the Fine study, nor the Aten study of the Rock Island County School District confront or even mention this barrier within their approaches. Goodwin correctly states that “Parental involvement can be inclusive only if the parents adequately represent the school population in terms of race, class, gender, socioeconomic status, geography, family structure, religious background, cultural heritage, and other characteristics…Too often, the parents who are involved are those who feel the most comfortable in schools- typically those who are White, English-speaking, and/or middle class” (2002).
Other common misconceptions among parental involvement research are the ideas that parents who do not demonstrate their physical presence at the school do not care about their child’s education, and that parents who struggle financially cannot support schools. In the Aten study of the Rock Island County School District during a stressful financial period augmented by the extremely negative effects of recent teacher strikes, the parents are reffered to as “apathetic” and hardly praised at all except for the incident in which “all extra-curricular programs were eliminated [and] the community responded by collecting $100,000 in one day which reinstated all extra-curricular activities in the district” (1998). Most research now takes into account that many parents of low-income families work multiple jobs or unusual shifts, and may not be able to take off work without putting their employment in jeopardy. Community consultation efforts must create an operational definition of “parental involvement” in order to persuade school administrations to change their narrow view of involvement. As the UIUC study showed, “in general, staff highlighted parental inadequacies or incompetencies, infrequently mentioning strengths. This focus tended to preclude parental perceptions of a welcoming attitude, especially for those parents who themselves had less-than-rewarding past school experiences” (Good 1997). The study then properly addresses this problematic cycle by calling for respectful and comprehensible communication between school, parents, and neighbors. Consultants can create communication methods and strategies that involve families and community members in all aspects of planning, decision making, curriculm design, choice of school personnel, and evaluations. Some educators may prefer more traditional forms of parental involvement such as volunteer work and the PTA, and fear more in depth participation from parents in academic planning and school policy. Therefore, community-based consultants must first encourage schools to understand that while parental involvement may not be the most cost-effective or efficient model, it is worthwhile and necessary in order to benefit the children.
The UIUC study fails to address an interesting phenomenon in the American education system. A study done by the U.S. Department of Educationd found that as children progress through the school system, contact between schools and familiies decline. Not only does the amount of contact decline, but the quality as well; as children age, the ratio of postive to negative contact shifts, and the majority of contact from middle school teachers grows negative, compared with the majority of positive contact for first graders. In the first grade, 52% of interactions are positive and only 20% are negative, but by seventh grade, positive contacts decrease to 36% and negative contacts increase to 33% (Puma 1993) As negative interactions increase, parents begin to associate administrators and teachers with punishment or failure, viewing them as unfriendly disciplinarians, and parents may become adverse to communicating with teachers. To prevent this from occurring, community consultants need to inform schools that a commitment to positive, ongoing contact must be made and upheld in order to maintain affirmative parent-teacher relations achieved while students are still young. Goodwin proposes in his literature a series of parent-teacher seminars or team-building activities based on findings from parent surveys offered at varying times in order to accomodate all parental schedules, and weekly letters or phone calls to parents summarizing class activities and individual triumphs and challenges. However, these approaches do not account for the enormous amount of time and effort teachers must be willing to give, nor the responsibility of the parents to respond to these efforts in order for them to be effective.
As both the UIUC and Aten studies address elementary schools, the literature implies that the community consultants are beginning their intervention earlier, even before the middle school or high school level. This approach has both negative and positive implications. While creating a strong foundation for parental involvement while their children are at a young age is highly beneficial, if the consultant efforts do not extend past elementary school they may cease to work at a certain point. As children age and enter middle school or junior high, families must adjust to changes in school structure while simultaneously enduring the physical and emotional changes of adolescence. In the middle grades, multiple teachers, the increasing complexity of course content, and students’ growing need for autonomy tend to weaken the tie between parents and the curriculum that existed in elementary school. Families may find that the ways in which they are involved will undergo fundamental changes during the middle-grade years” (Rutherford 1995). The UIUC study fails to account for the future of Lincoln Elementary graduates and their families, as no long-term plan for changing involvement is addressed.
Unfortunately, Rutherford’s proposal for middle school involvement has its own weaknesses; he writes that “successful middle grade school/family partnerships are supported through well-developed policies at the school, district, state, and federal level” (1997). The Myth of Community Development discusses the lack of well-developed federal policy that would encourage meaningful parental involvement in schools, citing that “attempts at economic revitilization often take the place of other efforts that would do much more good (especially improving schools, housing, and police protection), and they establish a public mission that can’t be accomplished” (Lemann 1994). Rutherford offers no idea as to how consultants and agents might go about enacting federal policies, nor what issues these top down policies should address. It is important to also note that the most aware population is the community members, and therefore educational programs should be designed and implemented by them, not imposed from above by authority figures such as Federal bureaucrats or even social workers.
Perhaps the most important structure for change, and sometimes the most obstructive barrier, is the issue of communication. Research has shown that communication is most effective when it is achieved through multiple methods on numerous occasions. In the UIUC study researchers found that “positive two-way communication between families and school staff leads to participation that helps families feel valued and comfortable in the school…by comparing communication efforts used in more and less successful events, the Partners discovered that one of the most effective forms of communication occurs when parents tell other parents about events and the importance of their participation. We encouraged core-group, highly involved parents to start a telephone tree to personally contact other less involved parents” (Good 1997). The inherent flaw in this approach lies in the overlooking of those parents without telephone access, and the emphasis on certain parents, which may leave other parents feeling left out or patronized. The Aten study also emphasizes the importance of two-way communication, noting that what was once viewed as parental involvement communications were really just newsletters of school schedules and policies. A means of soliciting parental feedback is suggested, including surveys to ensure ongoing performance and efficiency. However, the UIUC study is far more successful in its evaluation of the importance of group effort. While the Aten study fails to address any interaction among parents, the Partners for Progress write that “when parents do not see the gvalue of group effrts and act only as individuals, individual parent efforts are diluted and ineffectual. If families can see directly the influence of their group efforts…they are more likely to invest time and energy in other group efforts” (Good 1997).
One major factor that of all the studies reviewed for this paper failed to account for was a mission statement from the consultant groups. Mission statements have the power to initiate dialogue among faculty and parents, and send a message to the entire community regarding the priorities of the agents for their clients, ultimately the children. A mission statement would increase awareness between community and consultant, increasing the chance of assitance and participation on the part of the citizens of the community. The consultants of the UIUC study do however write that “as outsiders and stakeholders, we continue to be able to bring a fresh perspective to many highly charged issues. In sharing our expertise and access to information, we find parents and many staff receptive. Because our relationships with parents were established by seeking out their opinions, we find that parents are comfortable challenging our interpretations. This causes us to frequently rethink our conclusions. However, there are some limitations inherent in the consultant role defined this way. Because there are multiple consultees and clients, often with superficially opposing direct interests, the constultants are sometimes hard-pressed to define a comfortable role” (Good 1997). If this statement was delivered to the community through one of their communication bridges, perhaps they would achieve even more success. However, this empirical work does not fully address the limitations of this definition of the consultant role.
Reviewing the empirical work that focuses on intervention approaches designed by community consultants aimed at increasing parent and community involvement in schools demostrates that while consultation efforts can be successful over time, their specific methods targeted at achieving meaningful parental involvement are difficult to pinpoint. Research does repeatedly report the importance of parental involvement as essential to children’s academic success, which leads to the assumption that community consultation efforts to increase involvement will be successful. However, the empirical research studies described in this paper demonstrate the need for careful consideration of neighborhood contexts and the potential barriers that may prevent meaningful parental and community involvement. Consultants must take into account language barriers when encouraging parent-teacher communication. Consultants must be careful not to allow parents lack of time and/or money to prevent them from contributing and interacting with planning and evaluation processes. Consultants cannot make assumptions about parents or educators that prevent a two-way line of communication from being established. Overall, UIUC Partners for Progress case study of Lincoln Elementary School demonstrated considerable proof for their theoretical basis, and demonstrated many successful approaches despite some weaknesses. The special events, special programs, and moments of opportunity created and developed by the consultants allowed for maximum empowerment of not only parents, but students, educators, and other community members as well. The consultants efforts to reduce the limitations on the roles that school officials offer parents were highly successful; not only were restrictions to the physical space of the school decreased, mental restrictions were challenged and upset by the formation of new citizen roles that included planning and decision making. Structures that assist in the promotion of meaningful parental involvement in the educational process are crucial in the improvement of children’s academic, emotional, and behavioral development, and community consultant efforts to implement these structures can be highly successful.
