Although the Vietnam War began during John F. Kennedy’s presidency, the majority of the war was fought during the administrations of Lyndon B. Johnson and Richard M. Nixon. Although both men came from very different backgrounds, the Vietnam War would bring similar results to both President Johnson and President Nixon, though most would agree that the brunt of the defeat fell upon President Nixon, who also suffered the effects of a number of other scandals. It is important to discuss the backrounds of each president and how each man effected the Vietnam War. In turn, it is also important to investigate the outcome of the war and what it meant for each president and the country as a whole.
Lyndon Johnson was a Cold War Warrior. He had seen the success of World War II and felt that the United States was an invincible force. As a former Senate majority whip, Johnson knew how to control a crowd and get what he wanted. He used these skills later in his Presidency to get what he needed for the Vietnam War. Johnson had a very prominent ego and sense of ambition. Johnson was also manipulative and overbearing, while being generous and loyal (Herring 135). As a Cold War Warrior, Johnson had a very broad definition of presidential power. He felt that the war with Vietnam was justified because he believed that an attack on a distant nation could impend on the national security of the United States and therefore, universal presidential action could and should be sanctioned. He felt that both Ho Chi Minh and General Giap were puppets of other large Communist countries like China and Russia (York). Because Johnson was insecure about his effectiveness in foreign policy, he relied heavily upon the advisors which had served under Kennedy. These advisors would bring Johnson inconsistent reports, which would lead to many mistakes and an escalation of the war (Herring136). It would be Johnson who authorized the first air strikes in North Vietnam in August of 1964. He was also responsible for the crucial decision to send American combat forces to Vietnam, a decision which would have a long lasting impact. As the war escalated with Johnson’s approval of more troops and supplies to Vietnam, the people of America became very dissatisfied with America’s policy toward Vietnam (Vietnam: 10,000 Day War). The breaking point for Johnson was the Tet Offensive which occurred in the spring of 1968. A reported, yet not tactical, American loss would send Johnson’s ratings on a downward spiral, forcing him to announce that he would not seek reelection (York).
Richard Nixon was an organized man with an impeccable work ethic. Although Nixon had a drive that could not be rivaled, he lacked a sense of humor and social skills (Olson and Roberts 210). However, Nixon was also secretive and paranoid, qualities that would cause him trouble and scandal during his presidency (York). Nixon was shrewd and exploited that nation’s dissatisfaction with Johnson. His promise to end the war would win him the presidential election in 1968 (Olson and Roberts 212). By the time Richard Nixon took office in 1968, the people of America were dissatisfied with American involvement in Vietnam. We had lost 50,000 men, a number which was too great for Americans to bear. Nixon served as Vice President under Dwight Eisenhower from 1953 to 1961. Although he was out of public office for a seven year period preceding his presidency, he supported forceful military intervention in Vietnam. Nixon was forced to adopt a different policy toward Vietnam because of the fierce opposition toward the Johnson Administration. He defined presidential power through a more narrow approach. He claimed a war with Vietnam would only be justified if there was potential for an attack on the United States (York). This was his formal, stated policy; however, it was one that he did not follow. Nixon would also face fierce disapproval from Americans after his promise to end the war proved false. In truth, Nixon expanded the war by bombing Cambodia for nearly four years behind the backs of the American people. In July of 1973 when Congress and the American people found out about the bombing of Cambodia, there was an outcry for Nixon to cease his actions. Instead, he began openly bombing Cambodia despite extreme public protest (Vietnam: 10,000 Day War).
Johnson and Nixon both suffered from the impact of the Credibility Gap. What mainly hurt Johnson’s credibility was the Tet Offensive. Although the Johnson Administration had assured Americans that the war was coming to an end, the political defeat at Tet was a loss for both the United States Army and the Johnson Administration. Despite the fact that Tet was not really a loss for the United States and that losses were horribly exaggerated, news reports of defeat did irreversible damage to Johnson’s credibility (Duiker 209). Tet showed that despite what Johnson had been telling the people, the war was far from over. This gap between the reality and the truth is what became known as the Credibility Gap. People began to think that they were being lied to, which caused a split in the Democratic Party and a downward spiral for Johnsons ratings. The Credibility Gap would cause Johnson to step down from the presidency in 1968 and make room for Richard Nixon, who would suffer somewhat of the same fate. The invasion of Cambodia severely damaged public opinion toward Nixon. “Now unrest resurfaced on college campuses throughout the country…Congress grew more reluctant to back Nixon’s policies in Indochina and eventually forced the administration to agree to withdraw all U.S. forces from Cambodia by the end of June” (Duiker 229-230). Nixon had lied to the American people. He had gone behind the backs of both American citizens and Congress, both of whom were angry about being fooled by Tricky Dick. By the end of Nixon’s presidency, he had lied to the American people about Cambodia and had been involved in a horrible scandal known as Watergate, which eventually forced him to resign from the presidency. While Johnson only suffered a loss of credibility, Nixon lost both credibility and the respect of the American people (York).
To the North Vietnamese, the victory over the United States was looked upon as just another step in defending their nation against foreign invaders. Vietnam had been fighting foreigners since the beginning of its history, so a victory over America was not significant. As for the South Vietnamese, they had been abandoned by their ally, the United States. As millions of refugees fled Vietnam, hatred and resentment toward Americans grew. The United States had involved itself in Vietnam’s struggle and then abandoned them after years of gruesome fighting and tens of thousands of deaths (“The Legacies of the Vietnam War”).
For Americans, the war had been pointless. It has been America’s longest, most costly war. Despite the cost, the war accomplished nothing. The United States, who had been the victorious heroes of World War II, suffered a humiliating loss at the hands of Third World Communists. America, the most powerful nation in the world was unable to defeat the North Vietnamese in the fight against Communism. The only results of the war were horrible treatment of the soldiers who had fought so dutifully in a foreign land and an everlasting mistrust of government and institutions (“The Legacies of the Vietnam War”). The only consolation to Americans was a sense of relief that this terrible war was finally over. All of the losses and internal dissent had finally come to an end (Duiker 248).
References
Duiker, William. Sacred War: Nationalism and Revolution in a Divided Vietnam. New York: McGraw-Hill Co., 1994.
Olson, James S. and Randy Roberts. Where the Domino Fell: America and Vietnam, 1945-1990. New York: Wiley, John & Sons, 1992.
Vietnam: A Television History. “The Legacies of the Vietnam War”. PBS Film. 1983.
Vietnam: The Ten Thousand Day War. Film. 2000.
York, Anne. Lecture. Youngstown State University.
