Peter Singer’s book One World provides a fascinating and involving look at the ethics surrounding the globalization that is occurring in the world today. He responds to issues that are both relevant and pressing and provides a comprehensive look at all the issues regarding globalization from different viewpoints. Singer then proceeds to analyze these viewpoints to show what the most ethical and concrete answer is to some of these important questions.
The first chapter of the book, entitled a changing world, introduces the general concepts that Singer follows throughout his entire book. Singer states that remarks of President Bush in response to issues of global warming and emissions cutbacks, in which he said “We will not do anything that harms our economy, because first things first are the people who live in America” (p.1-2). It is through this statement that Singer shows the typical attitude of societies. He does, however, say that the attacks of September 11, 2001 show that globalization is increasingly making the world a smaller and smaller place. Through this idea, Singer asserts that a nation cannot assume its people are more important than any other.
Chapter two, entitled one atmosphere, brings Singer’s ethical views on environmental ethics to the forefront. The primary focus of this chapter is the idea that no single nation has more or less of a right to the environment than any other. This idea obviously contradicts the statement aforementioned by President Bush. Singer uses a study that looked at carbon emissions from 1950-1986 in different countries and “found that the United States, with about 5 percent of the world’s population…was responsible for 30 percent of the cumulative emissions” (p. 32) to show the inequality currently in the world regarding pollution. He talks about the rejection of the Kyoto treaty by the United States and also delves into the idea of emissions trading, which he seems to regard as the best way to deal with the situation. Singer seems to accept that pollution is a part of life, but advocates such steps as voluntary reductions and emissions credits. He proposes that these credits give each nation a maximum amount of emissions, and that those credits that are not used can be traded to other nations in need of more credits.
The third chapter of the book, one economy, focuses on the rise of global trade and organizations such as the WTO. The entire look at globalization ethics in this chapter focuses on the WTO and how even though they may have been intended as a good thing, in the end it has led to a series of inconsistencies. One example that Singer provides is that “In 1993 the European Union adopted a directive preventing the use of animals in cosmetics testing and prohibiting, by 1998, the sale of cosmetics that had been tested on animals. But the European Union was advised that the prohibition on the sale of cosmetics tested on animals would be a breach of WTO rules. The ban was never implemented” (p. 68-69). This example is part of a series of examples that Singer gives on the inconsistencies between the wording of the WTO’s statements and the actual implementation of their policies.
Chapter four, one law, delves into the topics of genocide and the development of international law and international criminal court jurisdiction. Singer shows how the charter of the International Military Tribunal, which was organized following World War II to try Nazi war criminals, began a new era in prosecuting those who have been accused of crimes against humanity. He says “Belgium has legislation recognizing the principle of universal jurisdiction” (p. 115) and that other nations also recognize the authority of international criminal courts, but that other nations, such as the United States, continually fight the jurisdiction of these groups and seek exceptions for their own citizens. In this chapter, Singer seeks to answer the questions of when it is necessary to intervene in the affairs of another nation of what the role of the United Nations is in the world today.
Chapter five, one community, deals with the ethical issues regarding human equality and impartiality. Singer uses the events that immediately followed the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 to show the unequal treatment that many people in the world receive. A large part of this chapter deals with donations to organizations that exist to provide needed financial and economic support to third world countries. Singer makes the case that Americans have a much higher preference for other American when it comes to donations. He says “In the year 2000, Americans made private donations for foreign aid, totaling about $4 per person in need. New Yorkers, wealthy or not, living in lower Manhattan on September 11, 2001, were able to receive an average of $5,300 a family” (p. 152). Singer proposes that every American or citizen in the wealthier countries should be willing to provide more private aid to those organizations since the governments of many countries, especially the United States, provide very little in foreign aid. He does bring up the point, however, that it is often very difficult to know exactly how much of the donations actually get to the people it was originally intended for.
The final chapter of Singer’s book, a better world?, attempts to tie together many of the major themes that the other chapters of the book have discussed. Singer puts forth a quote from the Chinese philosopher Mozi in which he say “What is the way of universal love and mutual benefit?…It is to regard other people’s countries as your own.” (p. 196). It is this idea of eliminating nations and all working together that Singer proposes. He ties together the ideas put forth in the other chapters by basically saying that the other ideas he has proposed would either ultimately lead to this, or would be best served by this idea. This is perhaps his most radical proposal, as it envisions a world and society without boundaries or borders.
The book itself amplifies in many ways Singer’s views that he put forth in writings such as Writings on an Ethical Life. The idea of equality between all human beings is a central focus in this book, and he advocates some ways in which this equality can be best achieved and also takes a long look at the organizations that exist in the world that undermine this equality. One of the biggest changes between this book and his previous writings is his extensive use of statistical data to support his examples. While he did use some data and other examples in previous works, this book contains an exhaustive look at financial data that makes his points even more relevant.
The concept of citizenship must be redefined to meet the demands of the 21st century, and Singer advocates a broad ethic in achieving this. The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 provide what seems to be a catalyst for the new global worldview that society must take, and Singer pushes this idea intensely. When he states in regards to 9/11 that “An American administration that had previously shown little concern for the opinion of the rest of the world found itself in need of the cooperation of other nations in a global campaign against terrorism” (p. ix), this is most evident. According to Singer, it is increasingly clear that nations cannot rely on themselves alone but must look to others in the global society. This is a recurring theme throughout the book.
According to Singer, the advanced Western nations have obligation to the poorer nations of the southern hemisphere. These obligations stem again from Singer’s proposal of human equality that he puts forth in chapter five, one community. He states that “the vast majority of us living in the developed nations of the world have disposable income that we spend on frivolities and luxuries, things of no more importance… than avoiding getting our shoes and trousers muddy” (p. 157). Singer believes that it is the duty of those who are better off to help those who are worse off get on their feet. This is an obvious reference to Singer’s belief that all are equal. His approach to the problem of inequality between nations is an example of an impartial ethic and reflects strongly on his idea of justice, which is an offshoot of his ideas on equality.
Singer’s views on when one nation should invade another and the role of the United Nations in a globalized world go hand in hand. He first begins with the idea that “Intervention can too easily become an excuse for annexation” (p. 122). By bringing this to the forefront immediately, Singer provides a critical way to look at interventions and the role of the United Nations. He references various statutes from the International Criminal Court to give several criteria for intervention, and sums it up using the words of former United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan to say intervention is necessary “when death and suffering are being inflicted on large numbers of people, and when the state nominally in charge is unable or unwilling to stop it” (p. 123). The United Nations has at various times attempted to use this idea in the process of intervening in the affairs of other nations, but of course has had its share of critics. However, the United Nations seems to be the best candidate for intervention. Singer’s earlier quote says that greed ultimately becomes the focus of intervention, so having an international organization to handle the intervention will result in a more objective process.
Singer ultimately supports the World Trade Organization, but not in its current form. He delves into examples of how the WTO has at many points in its history been a contradictory organization that says one thing in its bylaws and takes an opposite stance in its enforcement activities. One good example of its contradictory policies is the aforementioned example of the European Union stance on animal testing and the WTO’s sharp criticism and threats as a result. Singer says “just as national laws and regulations were eventually seen as essential to prevent the inhuman harshness of nineteenth century laissez-faire capitalism in the industrialized nations, so instituting global standards is the only way to prevent an equally inhumane form of uncontrolled global capitalism” (p. 94). In theory, this is the purpose of the WTO. He recognizes that the WTO has not always embraced this in practice, but believes it is showing signs of moving towards what it should be, and that once it reaches this point is will be an effective and important part of the global economy. Allowing such an organization to bring equality to the global economy is a very good idea, but it remains to be seen if the bureaucracy of the WTO can be overcome.
Overall, Singer’s position on globalization is a noble one. The idea that equality should be the ultimate goal is definitely an idea that is good. His belief that the United Nations and the World Trade Organization can be effective means of achieving these goals are suspect, if only for their past failures, but it is always possible for change to occur. After all, it is change that Singer is advocating.
Source
Peter Singer, One World
