American government is a complex system that involves many people. It is a representative system, which ultimately means the general public has the right to choose who represents them. Because of this, the public expects the government to represent their interests and wishes. There are two types of representation used in national government: trustee and delegate. Trustee representation is when a political actor acts according to what he/her thinks is right/best for the people who elected him/her. Delegate representation is when a political actor acts according to the preferences of the constituents (people who elected him/her). The most prevalent form of representation at the national level is delegate representation, which can be seen at the Congressional level as well as the Presidential level through elections, campaigns, political positions and public involvement.
Elections
Reelection is the primary goal of any good politician. According to David R. Mayhew, this goal must be achieved if the political actor wants to achieve anything else (Principles and Practice of American Politics, 2nd ed., 2004, p. 247). Because the twenty-seventh amendment to the Constitution states the President may only be in office for two terms, the goal of reelection is more important to members of Congress.
Each member of Congress has a responsibility to his or her constituency (American Government, Norton & Company, 8th ed., 2004, p. 161). Their constituency is made up of the people in the district they represent. There is an accountability relationship between the public and the politician and because of this “reelection underlies everything else” (Principles andPractice, 2nd ed., 2004, p. 247).
There are three activities politicians undertake in order to be reelected (Principles and Practice, 2nd ed., 2004, p. 248). First there is advertising, which means the political actor makes specific frequent visits to their constituency (ibd). This helps the Congressman make his or her name known and shows the public that he or she cares about them. Secondly, there is credit claiming, meaning the political actor acts as if he is responsible for something that pleases his constituency (ibd). In turn, the public will believe the political actor will do more pleasing things in the future (ibd). Ultimately this means the congressman will have to know the opinions and moods of the people in his district so he can decide which policies to take credit for. Lastly, politicians take political positions (ibd). This means the politician publicly states things of interest; he makes “pleasing judgmental statements” (Principles and Practice, 2nd ed., 2004, p. 251). Mayhew also said “for most congressmen most of the time all three activities are essential” (Principles and Practice, 2nd ed., 2004, p. 254). In other words, in order for a congressman to improve his chances of being reelected, he must make an effort to visit his constituents, take credit for policies that please his constituents, and take political stances on policies that his constituents agree with. The congressman acts as a delegate representative in this way because he does what his constituency wants in an attempt to be reelected to his office.
Although the President may only serve two terms, he still cares about reelection. The President goes through a similar process as congressmen in an attempt to get reelected. The most similar activity is getting to know the public’s opinions and moods so he can take political stances. President Clinton was the best example of a president who heavily relied on public-opinion polling to make decisions and consequently he became a more popular president (American Government, Norton & Company, 8th ed., 2004, p. 385). Clinton “established a ‘political war room’ ” (ibd). Representatives from every department met every day in the war room to coordinate Clinton’s public relations efforts (ibd). An example of how Clinton used polls to bolster his popularity is when he took the advice of the polls in April 1996 about requiring “states to take more aggressive action to compel payment” from fathers who did not pay for child support (ibd). This is an example of delegate representation because he acted exactly the way the general public wanted him to act. As everyone knows, President Clinton served two consecutive terms in office and he is considered to have been an extremely popular president.
Campaigns
Campaigning is another aspect through which delegate representation can be seen. Steven S. Smith said “broadly speaking, campaign promises are (and should be) related to governing, and election outcomes are (and should be) shaped by performance in office” (Principles and Practice, 2nd ed., 2004, p. 261). Smith also said “decisions by policymakers appear to be an extension of campaigns” (ibd). Congressional leaders use political and information technology developed for campaigning (ibd). Campaigners hire consultants and pollsters to develop tactics and legislative priorities (ibd). Essentially this means congressmen make sure they are informed about public opinion and proclaim loyalties and promises they know will please the public.
This is delegate representation because campaigners promise they will act in ways that their constituencies want them to act once they are elected to office. Theodore J. Lowi, Benjamin Ginsberg, and Kenneth A. Shepsle said “because campaigns are expensive propositions, most politicians are eager to please those who can supply resources for the next campaign” (American Government, Norton & Company, 8th ed., 2004, p. 176). The most recent campaign where the politician won provides information about the types of voters who supported him or her who will probably be willing to support him or her again (ibd).
Larry M. Bartels said if campaigners take a clear, strong stance that is different from their opponent’s viewpoint, there is more partisan voting (Principles and Practice, 2nd ed., 2004, p. 539). Partisan voting is when people identify more with one party and are more likely to vote for that party (American Government, Norton & Company, 8th ed., 2004, p. 432). Bartels said there has been a revival in congressional elections since 1978 (Principles and Practice, 2nd ed., 2004, p. 539). He also said there has been a revival in partisan voting in presidential elections since 1972 (ibd). The public cares more about the issues than about the people actually running for office. Voters are likely to vote for the person they are able to identify with in terms of issues and policy preferences (American Government, Norton & Company, 8th ed., 2004, p. 433). For example, “voters may cast their ballots for the candidate whose position on economic issues they believe to be closest to their own” (ibd). Basically public officials should take a political position and stick with it. In a sense this is like delegate representation because the political positions the politicians take are largely influenced by public opinion due to the fact that politicians want to please their constituents and win as many votes as possible.
Political Positions
Delegate representation is also seen in congressmen and the President’s political positions. James A. Stimson, Michael B. Mackuen, and Robert S. Erikson said “representative governments respond to-meaning act as a consequence of- changes in public sentiment” (Principles and Practice, 2nd ed., 2004, p. 441). Studying changes in public opinion improves the public policy prediction, which means opinion causes policy; this is also known as dynamic representation (ibd). The public judges public policy by either suggesting the government enhance it or trim it back and that judgments change as perceptions of the conditions of the world changes (Principles and Practice, 2nd ed., 2004, p. 442). Government officials and politicians sense this change and act accordingly (ibd). Stimson, Mackuen, and Erikson said “when public policy drifts from the public’s demands for policy, the representation system acts as a control mechanism to keep policy on course” (ibd).
Lowi, Ginsberg, and Shepsle said congressmen worry a lot about their constituents’ opinions “because these representatives realize that the choices they make may be scrutinized in a future election and used as ammunition by an opposing candidate” (American Government, Norton & Company, 8th ed., 2004, p. 202). American government has more delegate representation, as seen in a study that found between 1935 and 1975, “in about two-thirds of all cases, significant changes in public opinion were followed within one year by changes in government policy consistent with the shift in the popular mood” (American Government, Norton & Company, 8th ed., 2004, p. 405). If there is no delegate representation and the public does not get what it wants, then the public will think their congressman is not representing them and will not vote for him in the next election. In order to increase chances of reelection, politicians go with the expediency point, which is the “position most likely to optimize future reelection changes” (Principles and Practice, 2nd ed., 2004, p. 442). This is the position the politician knows the majority of the public agrees with and will be pleased with the politician for taking this stance. However, the only way to know the expediency point is to be “well informed about movements in public opinion” (Principles and Practice, 2nd ed., 2004, p. 443).
These “changes in mood or climate have important impacts on policy agendas and policy outcomes” (ibd). In other words, when the public changes sentiment, politicians are quick to be delegate representatives and please their constituency because they want to stay in office. The elected politicians “sense the mood of the moment, assess its trend, and anticipate its consequences for future elections” (ibd). Through this rational anticipation politicians change policy from the shifting perceptions (ibd). Aside from influencing changes in public policy, the public signals the intensity and direction of policies, meaning they have opinions on whether the government is either too active or not active enough and whether policy should be more conservative or more liberal (Principles and Practice, 2nd ed., 2004, p. 446). Examples of these types of influences over public policy are when “the early peak of public opinion liberalism during the early 1960s produced liberal policy; the turn away from activism and the steady move toward conservatism was similarly reflected in national policy; and the recent 1980s upsurge of public demand for action was also effective” (Principles and Practice, 2nd ed., 2004, p. 454). The public will not be ignored and politicians will assert themselves in political positions that are favorable to the public as well as alter policy to please the public’s wishes all in an attempt to stay in office for as long as possible.
Public Involvement
Public involvement in governmental affairs is yet another way delegate representation can clearly be seen. John R. Hibbing said the public needs to be more involved in order for them to trust the government (Principles and Practice, 2nd ed., 2004, p. 473). Of course, one way to be involved is for the government to take political polls and act according to the opinions of the public as seen in the polls. The political polls provide a basis from which to form policy. Again, President Clinton utilized political polls and became a very popular president for being a delegate representative and acting the way the public wanted him to act.
Politicians also use a person-to-person approach where they “acquire knowledge about opinions through direct exposure to a few people’s personal impressions” (American Government, Norton & Company, 8th ed., 2004, p. 391). They may also “informally interview a few ordinary citizens from each of the major religious faiths or from different occupations in an effort to construct a meaningful distribution of opinions in a constituency” (American Government, Norton & Company, 8th ed., 2004, p. 392). And politicians may also conduct surveys to see where the public stands on issues. However, in order for the survey to be accurate, the sample must be representative and “must accurately and proportionately reflect the views of the whole” (American Government, Norton & Company, 8th ed., 2004, p. 393). These are the easiest ways for politicians to get a sense of what the public is thinking and feeling and therefore he or she can act like a delegate representative please the public so he or she will have a good chance of reelection.
According to Professor Bimber, members of Congress also can provide constituency service (Bimber, 2006, January 25). Professor Bimber said all 335 offices take requests and by doing this the congressman hopefully makes a loyal voter (ibd). An example of this inside Congress casework is if a constituent is not receiving any social security checks and the company is unresponsive, the congressman can put pressure on the company to give the checks to the constituent (ibd). In a sense this is a form of delegate representation because the congressman is acting in accordance to the preferences of the constituent. An explicit example of delegate representation is the Electoral College (Bimber, 2006, February 24). Professor Bimber said the Twelfth Amendment to the Constitution called for electors to meet in their respective states and vote by ballot for the President (ibd). However, the public eventually decided they wanted to directly vote for the president (ibd). By the 1870’s all the states had passed laws where the public votes and the electors vote according to what the majority of the public wants (ibd). Professor Bimber said in some states the electors are free to vote for whomever they choose regardless of who the public chooses, and in all but two states, the candidate who receives the most votes in the state wins all the state’s electoral votes (ibd). Essentially the public is heavily involved in choosing the President of the United States. Whomever they vote for is the one who gets the electoral votes and has a better chance of being elected.
Conclusion
The public is a big factor in determining public policies. Government officials and representatives often act in ways they believe pleases the public as seen in their campaigns and the political positions they take. They take great pains to be informed and constantly know the nation’s mood because they know this will help them be reelected, and reelection is always their primary goal.
References
Bartels, L. (2000). Partisanship and Voting Behavior. American Journal of Political Science, 44(1).
Bimber, B. (2006, January 25-February 24). Class Lecture for Political Science 12, Department of Political Science, University of California, Santa Barbara.
Erikson, R. (1995). Dynamic Representation. American Political Science Review 89. Reprinted in Principles and Practice of American Politics. (2004) Eds. Samuel Kernell and Steven S. Smith (2nd Edition). Washington D.C.: CQ Press.
Ginsberg, B. (2004). American Government: Power and Purpose. (8th Edition). New York: Norton and Company.
Hibbing, J. (2002). The People’s Craving for Unselfish Government. Understanding Public Opinion. (2nd Edition). Washington D.C.: CQ Press. Reprinted in Principles and Practice of American Politics. (2004) Eds. Samuel Kernell and Steven S. Smith (2nd Edition). Washington D.C.: CQ Press.
Mayhew, David R. (1974). Congress: The Electoral Connection. New Haven: Yale University Press. Reprinted in Principles and Practice of American Politics. (2004) Eds. Samuel Kernell and Steven S. Smith (2nd Edition). Washington D.C.: CQ Press.
Smith, Steven S. (2004). Congressional Trends. Principles and Practice of American Politics. (2nd Edition). Washington D.C.: CQ Press.
