For those of us who have been educated in the Western tradition (nearly all of us), literature from the East can often be difficult to understand. One of the more difficult texts to understand is Confucius’ Analects. One of the things that makes the text so difficult to understand is that we Westerners tend to think about most everything in a linear fashion – everything has a starting point and everything has an ending point and everything else functions along some continuum from start to finish. We Westerners even take very difficult and complex ideas like time and think about it in a linear way by breaking it down into a simple teleological concept. However, in order to understand some of these Eastern texts in general, and in order to understand Confucius specifically, we need to move beyond our linear thinking and try to comprehend the teachings of Confucius by thinking of his work in terms of it being a “web of meaning.”
Confucius taught many of his virtues as being different concepts that must work together in a mutually supporting, symbiotic, and web-like way. Students of Confucius cannot accomplish any of the Confucian virtues without putting all of the others into practice as well. In addition, students of Confucius cannot think about putting these virtues into practice in a simplistic and systematic way because the circumstances of each person are different – each person is unique in his or her own way – and therefore, each of these Confucian virtues must be thought of as functioning within the context of each person’s own set of human relationships and roles. For students of Confucius, the goal of human life is to progressively cultivate these virtues and extend the reach of one’s net of human-heartedness (the Confucian idea of ren) progressively outward to wider and wider circles in the world.
Confucius’ brief biography, located in book 2, passage 4 of his Analects, serves as an excellent example of how these Confucian virtues function as a web of meaning. Confucius writes: “At fifteen my heart-and-mind were set upon learning.” According to Confucius, learning must involve a web of four processes: 1.) Learning culture’s patterns (history, poetry, music, philosophy, archery, etc.); 2.) Learning the art of reflecting (pondering, entertaining ideas, imagining); 3.) Learning how to realize wisdom (making wisdom real by participating in it); 4.) Xin (hsin) – The Chinese characters for this literally depicts “person” next to “speech” and Xin is often translated as “living up to one’s word.”
Later, The Master asks his student, Zilu. “Have you heard of the six flaws that can accompany the six desirable qualities of character?” and Zilu replies, “No, I have not.” Then, The Master says, “Sit down and I’ll tell you about them. The flaw in being fond of acting authoritatively (ren) without equal regard for learning is that you will be easily duped; the flaw in being fond of acting wisely without equal regard for learning is that it leads to self-indulgence; the flaw in being fond of making good on one’s word (xin) without equal regard for learning is that it leads into harm’s way; the flaw in being fond of candor without equal regard for learning is that it leads to rudeness; the flaw in being fond of boldness without equal regard for learning is that it leads to unruliness; the flaw in being fond of firmness without equal regard for learning is that it leads to rashness” (17/18).
Confucius then says “At thirty, I took my stance.” He goes on to add that there are three all-important virtues required in order to take one’s stance as a human being. First, one must have Li – The Chinese characters for this has “show” on the left and “sacred vessel” on the right. This essentially means ritual action or proper behavior according to status and ritual propriety or embodying and enacting the social order. Chen Gang asked the son of Confucius, Boyo, “Have you been given any special kind of instruction?” Boyo replies, “Not yet” and then goes on to say “Once when my father was standing alone and I hastened quickly and deferentially across the courtyard, he asked me ‘Have you studied the Songs?'” When Boyo answers “Not yet,” Confucius says “If you do not study the Songs, you will be at a loss as to what to say.” Then, Boyo took his leave and studied the Songs.
Boyo goes on to say, “On another day when he was again standing alone, I hastened quickly and deferentially across the courtyard.” Confucius asked him, “Have you studies the Rites?” and Boyo replied, “Not yet.” Confucious then says “If you do not study the Rites, you will be at a loss as to where to stand.” Boyo then, deferentially took his leave and studied the Rites. He then tells Chen Gang, “What I have learned from him, then, are these two things.” Then, Chen Gang, taking his leave was delighted and said, “I asked one question and got three answers. I learned the importance of the Songs and of the Rites, and I also learned that exemplary persons [junzi] do not treat their own sons as a special case” (16/13).
In addition to Li, one must also have Yi – The Chinese characters for this has the symbol “sheep” above “myself.” This essentially means appropriateness or aesthetic or moral rightness and righteousness or conscience (18/7). The Master said, “Having a sense of appropriate conduct [yi] as one’s basic disposition, developing it in observing ritual propriety [li], expressing it with modesty, and consummating it in making good on one’s word [xin]”… is what contributes to making one’s self “an exemplary person [junzi] (15/18).
Ren – The Chinese characters for this has “person” on the left and “two” on the right – essentially means humaneness or beneficence (6/30) or person-making – essentially an authoritative person or having authoritative conduct (7/24, 13/19). Ren, according to Confucius, is the third virtue required to make one’s stand. In addition, he implies that one grows in human-heartedness as one develops human-heartedness in others. Zizhang asked Confucius about authoritative conduct (ren) and Confucius replied, “A person who is able to carry into practice five attitudes in the world can be considered authoritative.” Naturally, Zizhang asked “What are these five attitudes?” Confucis replied, “Deference, tolerance, making good on one’s word [xin], diligence, and generosity. If you are deferential, you will not suffer insult; if tolerant, you will win over the many; if you make good on your word [xin], others will rely upon you; if diligent, you will get results; if generous, you will have the status to employ others effectively” (17/6).
Confucius says “at forty, I was no longer of two minds.” Essentially, he believes that one must be consistent at all levels and not hypocritical. There must be an ordering of the self and others (12/10). Confucius says, “If proper in their own conduct, what difficulty will they have in governing? But if not able to be proper in their own conduct, how can they demand such conduct from others?” In addition, one must have Xiao which essentially means filial piety between family members (this can also be extendable beyond the literal family through empathy) (1/2). Someone asked Confucius, “Why are you not employed in governing?” and Confucius replied, “The Book of Documents says ‘It is all in filial conduct! Just by being filial to your parents and befriending your brothers is carrying out the work of government.’ In doing this I am employed in governing. Why must I be ’employed in governing’?” In addition, one must have Junzi – The Chinese character for this depicts a prince – which essentially means an exemplary person or a gentleman. Zilu asked Confucius about exemplary persons and Confucius replied, “They cultivate themselves by being respectful.” Zilu asked “Is that all?” and Confucius replied, “They cultivate themselves by bringing accord to their peers.” “Is that all,” asked Zilu and Confucius replied, “They cultivate themselves by bringing accord to the people. Even a Yao or a Shun Confucius says, “At fifty, I realized the natural inclination of tian.” At this stage the broader context and significance of one’s actions in life become clear and one can be said to truly find one’s way. The Chinese character that represents tian depicts big high persons and essentially, the concept means heaven and earth, including the collective of ancestors and the pervasive and emergent order of things (this should not be confused with the Western idea of a creator God). When Confucius was surrounded in Kuang, he said “With King Wen long dead, does not our cultural heritage reside in us? If tian were going to destroy this legacy, we latecomers would not have had access to it. If tian is not going to destroy this culture, what can the people of Kuang do to me!” (9/5).
In addition to tian, one must also have de. The Chinese characters representing de depicts “stepping forward” on the left side, “full eye” on the upper right side, and “one heart-mind” on the lower right. Essentially, de is the combination of deliberate action, awareness, and commitment. It involves excellence, virtue, power, and particular focus (14/34). The Master said, “Tian has given life to and nourished excellence [de] in me – what can Huan Tui do to me!” (7/23). In addition, Confucius said “Governing with excellence [de] can be compared to being the North Star: the North Star dwells in its place, and the multitude of stars pay it tribute” (2/1).
Finally, one must have Dao [tao]. The Chinese characters for dao displays “to lead through” on the left and “head” on the right. Essentially, this means the way, way-making, and the path to humanity (1/2, 9/11). Gongsun Chao of Wei asked Zigong, “With whom did Confucius study?” Zigong replied, “The way [dao] of Kings Wen and Wu has not collapsed utterly – it lives in the people. Those of superior character have grasped the greater part while those of lesser quality have grasped a bit of it. Everyone has something of Wen and Wu’s way in them. Who then does the Master not learn from? Again, how could there be a single constant teacher for him?” (19/22).
Confucius says “at sixty my ear was attuned.” For Confucius, living and thinking became an art of attunement, becoming a master of communication through mutual resonance with other persons and even all of tian. Being a master of communication involves zhong. The Chinese character for zhong shows “center” above “heart-mind.” Essentially this means doping one’s best, keeping oneself on track, and loyalty (4/15). The Master said, “Zeng, my friend! My way [dao] is bound together with one continuous strand.” Zeng replied, “Indeed.” When Confucius left, the students asked, “What was he referring to?” and Zeng said, “The way of the Master is doing one’s utmost [zhong] and putting one’s self in the other’s place [shu], nothing more” (4/15). Shu essentially means deference, using one’s self as a measure, or The Golden Rule (15/24). The Chinese characters that represent shu show “like” above “heart-mind.” Zigong asked, “Is there one expression that can be acted upon until the end of one’s days?” and Confucius responded “There is shu: do not impose on others what you yourself do not want” (15/24).
Confucius said, “and at seventy I could give my heart-and-mind free rein without overstepping the mark.” In the end, the full life of virtues is a life of aesthetic enjoyment, harmony, sincerity and creativity in easeful mastery of human relations. Confucius said “having studied, to then repeatedly apply what you have learned – is this not a source of pleasure? To have friends come from distant quarters – is this not the source of enjoyment? To go unacknowledged by others without harboring frustration – is this not the mark of an exemplary person [junzi]?” (1/1).
One can also see the web of Confucian virtues in the work of Mencius, the second great Confucian philosopher. Mencius writes:
Everyone has a heart-mind that is sensitive to the suffering of others. The great kings of the past had this sort of sensitive heart-mind and thus adopted compassionate policies. Bringing order to the realm is as easy as moving an object in your palm when you have a sensitive heart-mind and put into practice compassionate policies.
Let me give an example of what I mean when I say everyone has a heart-mind that is sensitive to the suffering of others. Anyone today who suddenly saw a baby about to fall into a well would feel alarmed and concerned. It would not be because he wanted to improve his relations with the child’s parents, nor because he wanted a good reputation among his friends and neighbors, nor because he disliked hearing the child cry.
From this it follows that anyone who lacks feelings of commiseration, shame, and courtesy or a sense of right and wrong is not a human being. From the feelings of commiseration benevolence [ren] grows; from the feelings of shame righteousness [yi] grows; from the feeling of courtesy ritual [li] grows; from a sense of right and wrong, wisdom grows.
People have these four sprouts, just as they have four limbs. For someone with these four potentials to claim incompetence is to cripple himself; to say his ruler is incapable of them is to cripple his ruler. Those who know how to develop the four potentials within themselves will take off like a fire or burst forth like a spring. Those who can fully develop them can protect the entire land, while those unable to develop them cannot even take care of their parents [xiao].
Tu Wei-ming, a contemporary Confucian philosopher, expands this web of Confucian virtues:
Learning to be human, in this sense, is to learn to be sensitive to an ever-expanding network of relationships. To use the Confucian terminology of Master Ch’eng Hao (1032-85), the whole enterprise involves the realization of the authentic possibility of “forming one body with Heaven, Earth, and the myriad things.” Understandably, to become a mature person (an adult) in the Confucian sense is not to attain a limited professional or personal goal but to open oneself up to the ceaseless process of human flourishing. Unlike scientific and aesthetic talents, sensitivity in ethics never declines and, properly cultivated, it becomes more subtle and refined.
Sources:
Confucius Analects – http://chinese.dsturgeon.net/text.pl?node=1081&if;=en
Mencius – Project Gutenberg
Tu Wei-ming – “Embopdying the Universe: A Note on Confucian Self-Realization”
