In the Apology, written by Plato, Socrates is put on trial for misleading youth and not believing in the Gods. Today, this is generally looked at as a wrong doing, however at the time Athens needed a scapegoat and Socrates was the perfect fit. Socrates had very strong, unconventional ideas and questioned the government and it’s rulers. Socrates goes about his defense in a rather unexpected and unique way. He manages to dance around the subject for a long time, while making a reputable defense and pointing fingers back to his accusers. However, Socrates still wound up being found guilty and being sent to his death. Although this may not seem like a success, for Socrates I believe it was. In the Apology, Socrates uses many rhetorical techniques and strategies to make a case for his philosophical beliefs, values and virtues.
Most of Socrates’s defense can be divided into three categories; logos, pathos and ethos. Logos can be defined as actual argumentative points, pathos can be described as appealing to the audience’s feelings, and ethos can be defined as appealing to the audience about one’s own character and what they believe to be good character. The speech Socrates uses is extemporaneous, he says, “I shall use the words…which occur to me at this moment,” (19). However, he clearly thought it over many times in his head prior to giving it. Being extemporaneous, the speech has a very natural and relaxed feeling. This makes the audience more relaxed, approachable and accepting of the speech, as opposed to a speech that was being read word for word off cards.
Socrates’s defense takes the shape of a hermeneutic circle. Meaning that, to fully understand the argument, one must look at the entire speech as well as every detail and point Every stage in the argument shows light on the other stages, as well as the argument as a whole. In the same respect, looking at the argument as a whole helps to clarify some of the more minute points of the speech. Another technique Socrates uses to take quick jabs at his accusers is sarcasm. In the very first paragraph of the speech he states that his accuser’s, “Persuasive words almost made me forget who I was,” (19). He is also pointing out how sophists can make anybody believe anything. When Socrates starts taking an offensive strategy, rather than defensive, he discusses all of his beliefs. In a mock discussion with a normal citizen of Athens, he calls him a, “Citizen of the great and mighty and wise city of Athens,” (30). Looking at the historical context of the trial, it is right after Athens loses a major war. The prominence and glory of Athens is all but gone, and Socrates has no problem pointing it out, sarcastically or not.
Socrates begins his defense by showing modesty, in order to get the support of the crowd. During his exordium, or introduction, Socrates states, “Grant me one favor…if you hear me using the same words…not to interrupt me…for I am more than seventy…this is the first time that I have ever appeared in a court,” (19). In one statement, he gains sympathy for being an old man, modesty by asking them to grant him one favor, and approval by showing how he has never been in a court prior to this.
The next step in his defense was addressing his old accusers, rather than addressing what he is actually on trial for. He does this to establish his character, and to try to wash away some of the preconceptions and discriminations that the jury grew up believing. He says that his old accusers, “Took possession of your minds with falsehoods,” and that he is, “More afraid of [those falsehoods],” than he is of his current accusers (20). He knows that without mentioning those old accusations there is no way that he will be able to get a fair and just trial. Socrates pleads with the audience to, “Do away with this evil opinion of me,” (20). Socrates goes about his defense very methodically, covering all of his bases, and knows that he needs to establish a clean slate for himself.
Socrates tries to legitimize his life and his practices, as well as his faith in the Gods, by telling the story of the oracle. Socrates’s friend goes to the oracle and asks if there is any man wiser than Socrates, to which the oracle responds, “There was no man wiser,” (22). Socrates does not believe this at first, and decides he must find out for himself by questioning and confronting all those that believe themselves wise. He undertook a life mission saying, “Necessity was laid upon me,-the word of God,” (23). Socrates describes his lifestyle by boldly stating, “This is a duty which God has imposed upon me,” and he refuses to change the way he lives to please other people (34). Socrates will never give up his philosophical mission and lifestyle, because that would be a, “Disobedience to a divine command,” (37).
Socrates describes his philosophical mission and how he went around questioning every person he could find. After realizing that one such person merely thought that they were wise, Socrates describes the discussion and states, “I made another enemy of him, and many others besides him,” (23). Nobody wants to hear that they are foolish when they think that they are wise. He comments that, “Instead of being angry with themselves,” the people he talked to became, “Angry with me,” (24). He strengthens this point by showing how his current accusers all represent a sect of people he made out to be unintelligent and falsely wise. Meletus represents the poets, Anytus represents the craftsmen and Lycon represents the rhetoricians, or sophists. Socrates adds legitimacy to his case by talking of the oracle, while he takes legitimacy away from his accusers with his stories.
Another point that Socrates needed to establish early on was how different he was from sophists. Sophists used rhetoric to win any argument, regardless of right or wrong, truth or falsehoods. They taught the ability to use rhetoric techniques to make a strong case for any point, and therefore taught many of Athens’ primary and prominent politicians. Many of these prominent politicians are the same that Socrates questions. During the fall of Athens, many sophists were blamed for the moral decline in the city. Socrates also used rhetorical strategies when speaking, and therefore was lumped together with this group. Socrates’s accusers warned the audience to beware of his eloquence, and Socrates retorts back, “Unless by force of eloquence they mean the force of truth,” (19).
Socrates also mentions several prominent sophists of the time and how much money they make. He says, “I should have been very proud,” to have their abilities to teach human and political virtues, continuing that he has, “No knowledge of that kind,” (22). He also takes a stab at his accusers credibility when he says, “Let the judge decide justly and the speaker speak truly,” (20). Here he is telling the audience how he is speaking honestly and justly, and that his accusers should have been speaking the same way. It was crucially important in the beginning of Socrates’s defense to establish his own character and separate himself from the sophists.
Early in the speech, as noted above, Socrates speaks of wishing to have the ability to teach human and political virtue. However, at the time virtue had a different meaning than it does today. The word virtue (virtue) meant an acquired or taught skill. The Greek word for excellence, arete, meant not excellence in character but rather excellence in a particular field or skill. Socrates however, was the founder of modern ethics. His teachings changed the meaning of virtue to mean a trait of the soul, an important and worthwhile quality. He also changed the meaning of excellence, arete, in that same sense. Therefore, when he mentions he wishes he had those human virtues, he is not implying goodness of the soul but rather teaching societal based skills. Socrates does not consider himself a “teacher” in the general sense of the word. He does not teach people what they should think, but rather he assists them in how to think.
Socrates uses several means to set up his accusers with questions they cannot answer, or facts they cannot prove. One way that he does this is by using the amnesty act passed when democracy was restored to Athens. After control was regained, the government passed a law stating that nobody could be held accountable for any actions or crimes to the state prior to 404 B.C. Several of the tyrants in power were pupils of Socrates at one point, and therefore helped to give Socrates a bad name. Socrates asks his accusers if they have ever known him to be mentioned with any trouble involving the state prior to this. The accuser of course cannot answer this. He speaks more of this though, saying that, “The truth is I have no disciples; but if any one likes to come and hear me…he may freely come,” (33). Once again, Socrates talks of how he is not a teacher in the normal definition of the word. He points blame away from himself by stating that whether a pupil of his, “Turns out to be a bad man or a good one, that can not be justly laid to my charge, as I never taught him anything,” (33).
Another rhetorical strategy Socrates uses is to place thoughts in the jury’s mind. In a mock question from a jury member he says that they should be, “Sorry to judge hastily of you,” (22). He helps his cause by planting positive thoughts into their heads. Socrates also uses a series of questions or logical statements that must end in an inevitable and desired result. For example, after a series of questions Socrates states that, “If a man whom I have to live is corrupted by me, I am very likely to be harmed by him, and yet I corrupt him intentionally, too?” (27). Socrates uses his superior intelligence as well as the advantages of the amnesty act to help his cause.
A large portion of his defense is telling the crowd and the jury of the virtues he knows people should have. Socrates says, “A man who is good for anything ought not to calculate the chance of living or dying,” but rather should consider if what he is doing is, “Right or wrong,” (29). He says that he will, “Never fear or avoid a possible good,” which is in reference to his philosophies and his lifestyle (30). Socrates takes an offensive stance later in the speech, as he continues to pour out his philosophies and teachings to the jury. He says that he would never, under any circumstances give up philosophy and asks the jury, “Why do you care so much about…the greatest amount of money and honor and reputation,” rather than the, “Greatest improvement of the soul,” (30). Socrates talks about his definition of the word virtue, saying that, “Virtue is not given from money, but from virtue…comes every other good of man,” (31). Even after the verdict is given, Socrates does not stop preaching to the audience, but rather intensifies what he says. He bluntly says, “I am convinced that I never intentionally wronged any one,” (37). Socrates also says that the righteous man does not look to his private interests but rather he, “[Seeks] virtue and wisdom,” which is one of the reasons why Socrates himself is so poor (36). Socrates uses his rhetoric techniques and strategies to enlighten the jury and crowd of a better life.
Socrates offers a complete and profound defense, and is not afraid to state his principles or back down. That is one of the reasons that his speech was truly a success. He cared less about being found innocent than he did about enlightening the audience at all costs. Socrates states that he did not have, “The boldness or impudence or inclination to address you as you would have liked me to…weeping and wailing and lamenting,” (38). The purpose of Socrates’s speech was to show the audience the truth behind his practices, and if it resulted in innocence it would be an extra benefit. In fact, he expected to be found guilty and was only, “Surprised that the votes are so nearly equal,” (36). Socrates is happy with the fact that he changed a few minds that were in the jury that day. He says many things that he knows will certainly anger the audience and provoke them. Several times during his speech he pleads, “Not to interrupt me, even if I say something extravagant,” (22). Socrates continues by saying that the most reputable men, which are some of the men accusing and judging him on that day, are often, “The most foolish,” (23).
An interesting fact is that more people voted Socrates to get the death penalty than voted him guilty to begin with. That means that after the verdict is given he once again purposefully provokes and angers the crowd. He does not fear his death at all. He even comments that, “No one knows whether death…may not be the greatest good,” (30). He hopes that his death will make things better in the future, and set an example to society. Socrates also states that the, “Difficulty is not in avoiding death, but avoiding unrighteousness,” (38). He knew that he could have been found innocent if he had said what the crowd wanted to hear, but he chose to stick to his principles. The very last thing that Socrates says confirms his disposition and leaves the jury wondering about what they did. Socrates says, “The hour of departure has arrived, and we go our ways- I to die, and you to live. Which is better only God knows,” (41). Socrates shows no fear about death, and never alters his principles. Socrates’s intention with his speech is not to be found innocent, but rather to show the jury what his teachings and beliefs actually were. The fact that he changed a few minds is more than enough success for Socrates, and he continually states how his death will be a greater good for society.
In the Apology, Socrates gives possibly one of the greatest speeches ever given. However, scholars have always been confused if this was the real Socrates speaking, remembered word for word by Plato; or if it was rather Plato putting words into Socrates’s mouth, giving him the defense that he wished Socrates would have given. That is known as the Socratic problem. Whether or not the speech actually came from the literal mouth of Socrates, it displayed all of his virtues, beliefs and principles. Personally, I believe the speech was from the real Socrates, and that it was a success. He easily could have gotten off, but chose to enlighten the audience instead. If Plato had made up the speech, he would have given Socrates an irrefutable defense and would have made the jury seem cruelly biased for not making him innocent. Instead, Socrates purposefully provokes and angers the audience, and never backs down from his beliefs. Indeed, Socrates’s death did prove to be a greater good for society, and we still talk of him and learn from his teachings today.
